Circuit Diagram:

PN-Junction Diode:
Forward Bias:

Reverse Bias:

Symbol:

Expt. No.:

Date:
Characteristics of PN-Junction Diode

Aim:
To plot the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a PN diode and to
calculate cut-in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.
Apparatus Required:
S. No

Item

Range

Qty

1.

Diode

1N4007

2.

Resistor

1K

3.

Voltmeter

4.

Ammeter

DC (0-1V)
DC (0-30mA)
DC (0-500A)

1
1
1

5.

RPS

DC (0-30)V

Theory:
A diode is a PN junction formed by a layer of a P type and layer of N type
semiconductors. Once formed the free electrons in the N region diffuse across the
junction and combine with holes in P region and so a depletion Layer is developed. The
depletion layer consists of ions, which acts like a barrier for diffuse of charged beyond
a certain limit. The difference of potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier
potential. At 2.5 degree the barrier potential approximately equal to 0.7v for Silicon
diode and 0.3V for Germanium diode. When the junction is forward biased, the
majority carrier acquired sufficient energy to overcome the barrier and the diode
conducts. When the junction is Reverse Biased the depletion layer widens and the
barrier potential increases. Hence the majority carrier cannot cross the junction and the
diode does not conduct. But there will be a leakage current due to minority carrier.

Model Graph:

PN Diode V-I Characteristics Curve

Tabular Column:
Forward Bias:
S. No.

Forward Voltage (Vf)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10

Forward Current (If)

Procedure:
Forward Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the diode
and negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated and the graph is drawn for Vf versus If.
5. The forward resistance is found from the graph using the formula
rf = Vf/ If.
Reverse Bias:
1. The connection as made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For reverse bias the positive terminal of the power supply is connected
to cathode and negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. The power supply is switched ON, the reverse bias voltage Vf is
increased in steps and reverse current Ir is noted in each steps.
4. The readings are tabulated and the graph is drawn for Vr Versus Ir .
5. The reverse characteristics are approximately a straight line, inverse of
the slope give the reverse resistance.
6. The reverse resistance is found from the graph using the formula
rr = Vr/ Ir.

Reverse Bias:

S. No.

Reverse Voltage (Vr)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

Reverse Current (Ir)

Result:
Thus the characteristic of PN-Junction diode was drawn and the following
parameters are calculated.
Forward resistance

Reverse resistance

Cut-in Voltage

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is doping?
2. What is N-type semiconductor?
3. What is P-type semiconductor?
4. What is Diffusion?
5. What is Depletion region?
6. What is meant by barrier potential?
7. Explain how PN junction is formed
8. What is forward bias and reverse bias?
9. Explain the working of diode in forward and reverse bias condition
10. What are the applications of Diode?
11. What is Avalanche breakdown?
12. What is Zener breakdown?

Circuit Diagram:
Zener Diode:
Forward Bias:
6

Reverse Bias:

Symbol:

Expt. No.:

DATE:
Characteristics of Zener Diode

Aim:
To plot the VI Characteristics of a Zener diode and to determine the zener
breakdown voltage and Zener break down current
Apparatus Required:

S. No

Item

Range

Qty

1.

Zener Diode

Z 6.8 V

2.

Resistor

1K

3.

Voltmeter

DC (0-10V)

DC (0-1V)

4.

Ammeter

DC (0-50mA)

5.

RPS

(0-30)V

Theory:
Zener doide is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to
compensate for the damage that occurs in the case of a PN junction diode when the
reverse bias exceeds the breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid
rate.
Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the
cathode of the zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward
characteristic of the zener diode is same as that of a pn junction diode i.e. as the applied
potential increases. The current increases exponentially. Applying a negative potential
to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the zener diode. As the
reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs.

Modal Graph

Zener Diode V-I Characteristics Curve

Tabulation:
Forward Bias:
S. No.

Forward Voltage (Vf)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10

Forward Current (If)

Procedure:
Forward Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram for forward bias.
2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the diode
and negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The reading is tabulated.
5. A graphs is drawn between Vf and If.
Reverse Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram for reverse bias
2. The positive terminal of the power supply is connected to cathode and
negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. The power supply is switched ON
4. The reverse bias voltage Vr is increased in steps and reverse current Ir is
noted in each steps.
5. The readings are tabulated.
6. A graph is drawn between Vr and Ir. The reverse characteristics is
approximately as straight line, inverse of the slope give the reverse
resistance

10

Reverse Bias:

S. No.

Forward Voltage (Vr)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

11

Forward Current (Ir)

Result:
Thus the characteristics of Zener diode were drawn and the following
parameters are determined.
Zener Breakdown Voltage:

Zener Breakdown Current:

mA

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Zener Diode?
2. What is Avalanche breakdown?
3. What is Zener breakdown?
4. Explain how Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator
5. Explain the working of zener diode under forward and reverse bias

12

Circuit Diagram:

Pin Diagram:

Top view of BC 107

Model Characteristics Curve:

(a) Input Curve

13

Expt. No.:

DATE:
Common Emitter input-output Characteristics

Aim:
To determine the input and output characteristics of Common Emitter (CE)
configuration and Calculate the h-parameter values from the input and output
characteristic curves.
Apparatus Required:

S. No.
1

Name
RPS
Ammeter

Voltmeter

Range

Qty

DC (0-30)V

DC (010)mA

DC (0 500) A

DC (030)V

DC (01)V

Transistor

BC 107

Resistor

1k

56

Bread Board

6
7

Connecting Wires

12
1
As per
requirement.

Theory:
Bipolar Junction transistor (BJT) was Developed by Dr.Shockley in bell
laboratories in the year 1951. BJT is a three terminal two junction semiconductor
device in which the conduction is due to both the charge carrier. Hence it is a
bipolar device. In BJT the output current, output voltage, power are
controlled by its input current ,so the device is called as current
controlled device.
Cut in voltage for Si transistor = 0.7v
Cut in voltage for Ge transistor = 0.3v
The application of a suitable DC voltage across
transistor terminals is called biasing. There are three different ways of
biasing a transistor, which are known as modes of transistor operation.

14

(b) Output Curve

Tabulation:
Input characteristics:

Sl. No

VCE = 5V
VBE (volts)

VCE = 10V

IB ( mA)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09

15

VBE ( volts)

IB ( mA)

Junction bias Condition:

S.No.

Region

Emitter Base Junction

Collector Base Junction

Active

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

Saturation

Forward Bias

Forward Bias

Cut off

Reverse Bias

Reverse Bias

In CE configuration, the Emitter terminal is connected

as common terminal between the input and output circuit.
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Base current (IB) and Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) for a Constant Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE).
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) to 5 volt. Then increase Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) in small suitable steps and record the corresponding
values of

Base current (IB) at each step.

3. Plot a graph with Base to Emitter voltage (VBE) along X-axis and the Base
current

(IB) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked VCE = 5V as shown

in fig.
4. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different values of
Collector to Emitter voltage i.e., VCE = 10V, 15V etc.
Output characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Collector current (IC) and
Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) for a Constant Base Current (IB).
1. Adjust the Base current (IB) to 20A value. Then increase the Collector to
Emitter voltage (VCE) in number of steps and record the corresponding values
of Collector current (IC) at each step.
2. Plot a graph with Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) along X-axis and the
Collector current (IC) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked IB = 20A
as shown in fig.
3. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different values of
Base current (IB) at 40A,60A etc.
Output characteristics:
16

IB = 30A
Sl. No

VCE (volts)

IB = 40A

IC ( mA)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09

17

VCE (volts)

IC ( mA)

Graphical Determination of h-parameters for CE:

1. Input impedance hie = VBE / IB

( for a constant VCE )

2. Reverse Voltage gain hre = VBE / VCE ( for a constant IB )

3. Forward Current gain hfe = IC / IB

( for a constant VCE )

4. Output Admittance hoe = IC / VCE ( for a constant IB )

RESULT:
Thus t h e input and output characteristics of Common Emitter (CE)
configuration was plotted and the following h-parameter values are determined from
the input and output characteristic curves.
Input impedance hie =
Reverse Voltage gain hre =
Forward Current gain hfe =
Output Admittance hoe =
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is BJT?
2. Explain the construction of PNP and NPN Transistor.
3. Explain the operation of PNP transistor.
4. Explain the operation of NPN transistor.
5. What is ?
6. What is the need of configuration in transistor?
7. What are the types of configuration?
8. What is cutoff region?
9. What is active region?
10. What is saturation region?

18

Circuit Diagram:

Pin Diagram:

Top view of BC 107

Model Characteristics Curve:

(a) Input Curve

19

Expt. No.:
Date:
Common Base input-output Characteristics
Aim:
To determine the input and output characteristics of Common Base (CB)
configuration and Calculate the h-parameter values from the input and output
characteristic curves.
Apparatus Required:

S.No.
1

Name
RPS
Ammeter

Voltmeter

Range

Qty

(0-30)V

DC (010)Ma

DC (0 10) mA

DC (010)V

DC (01)V

Transistor

BC 107

Resistor

1k

65

Bread Board

6
7

Connecting Wires

12
1
As per
requirement.

Theory:
Bipolar Junction transistor (BJT) was Developed by Dr.Shockley in bell
laboratories in the year 1951. BJT is a three terminal two junction semiconductor
device in which the conduction is due to both the charge carrier. Hence it is a
bipolar device. In BJT the output current, output voltage, power are
controlled by its input current ,so the device is called as current
controlled device.
Cut in voltage for Si transistor = 0.7v
Cut in voltage for Ge transistor = 0.3v
The application of a suitable DC voltage across transistor terminals is
20

called biasing. There are three different ways of biasing a transistor,

which are known as modes of transistor operation.

21

(b) Output Curve

Tabulation:
Input characteristics:

Sl. No

VCB = 5V
VBE ( volts)

VCB = 10V
IE ( mA)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

22

VBE ( volts)

IE ( mA)

Junction bias Condition:

S.No.

Region

Emitter Base Junction

Collector Base Junction

Active

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

Saturation

Forward Bias

Forward Bias

Cut off

Reverse Bias

Reverse Bias

In CB configuration, the Base terminal is connected as

common terminal between the input and output circuit.
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Emitter current (IE) and Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) for a Constant Collector to base voltage (VCB).
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the Collector to Base voltage (VCB) to 5 volt. Then increase Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) in small suitable steps and record the corresponding
values of

Emitter current (IE) at each step.

3. Plot a graph with Base to Emitter voltage (VBE) along X-axis and the
Emitter current

(IE) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked VCB =

5V as shown in fig.
4. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different
values of

Collector to base voltage i.e., VCB =10V, 15V.., etc.

Output characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Collector current (IC) and
Collector to base voltage (VCB) for a Constant Emitter Current (IE).
1. Adjust the Emitter current (IE) to 2 mA value. Then increase the Collector to
base voltage (VCB) in number of steps and record the corresponding values of
Collector current (IC) at each step.
2. Plot a graph with Collector to base voltage (V CB)

along X-axis and the

Collector current (IC) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked I E = 2mA as
shown in fig.
3. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different values
of Emitter current (IE) at 4mA, 6mA etc.
23

Output characteristics:

IE = 2mA

IE= 4mA

Sl. No.
VCB ( volts)

IC ( mA)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

24

VCB ( volts)

IC ( mA)

Graphical Determination of h-parameters for CB:

1. Input impedance hib = VBE / IE

( for a constant VCB )

2. Reverse Voltage gain hrb = VBE / VCB ( for a constant IE )

3. Forward Current gain hfb = IC / IE

( for a constant VCB )

4. Output Admittance hob = IC / VCB (for a constant IE )

Result:
Thus the input and output characteristics of Common Emitter (CB)
configuration was plotted and the following h-parameter values are determined from
the input and output characteristic curves.
Input impedance hib =
Reverse Voltage gain hrb =
Forward Current gain hfb =
Output Admittance hob =
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is CB configuration?
2. Explain how can input characteristics of CB configuration be obtained.
3. Explain how can output characteristics of CB configuration be obtained.
4. What is base width modulation?
5. What is hib?
6. What is hfb?
7. What is hob?
8. What is hrb?
9. What is punch through?
10. What is ?
11. what are the types of configuration
Pin Diagram:

25

Circuit Diagram:

Model Graph:
Drain Characteristics:

26

Expt. No.:
Date:
Characteristics of Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Aim :
To plot the transistor characteristics of JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
& to find drain resistance, transconductance & amplification factor
Apparatus Required:
S. No

Component

Range

Qty

1.

JFET

FET BFW10

2.

Resistor

1K

3.

RPS

Dual (0-30)V

4.

Voltmeters

DC (0-10)V

5.

Ammeters

DC (0-30)Ma

6.

Bread Board

--

7.

Connecting Wires

--

2
1
1
As Per
Requirement

Theory:
Drain Characteristics:
In BJT, the relationship between an output parameter Ic and an input parameter
IB is given by a constant _, the relationship in JFET between an output parameter, I d,
and an input parameter, Vgs, is more complex. In the saturation region, there exists a
square-law transfer relationship.
Transconductance Characteristics:
In the transfer characteristics of a two port network, the input parameter is
changed and its effect on the output parameter is observed. Similarly JFET can be
treated as a two port nonlinear network. The transfer characteristics wherein the input
parameter is the voltage across gate and source, and the output parameter is the drain
current are called the trans-conductance characteristics.

27

Transfer characteristics:

Drain Characteristics:

Vgs = 0V

Vgs = -1V

Sl. No.
VDS (V)

ID (mA)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

28

VDS (V)

ID (mA)

Procedure:
Drain Characteristics (rd):
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

VGS is kept constant (Say -1V), VDS is varied insteps of 1V and the
corresponding ID values are tabulated.
The above procedure is repeated for VGS =0V.
Graph is plotted between VDS and ID for a constant VGS
The Drain resistance is found from the graph using the formula rd = VDS/ ID.

Transfer Characteristics (gm):

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

VDS is kept constant (Say 5V), VGS is varied insteps of 1V and the corresponding
ID values are tabulated.
The above procedure is repeated for different values of VDS=10V, 15V.
Graph is plotted between VGS and ID for a constant VDS
The Transconductance is found. From the graph.
gm = ID/VGS -1

Amplification Factor ():

Amplification factor () = rd*gm (the amplification factor value must not exceed
50)

29

Transfer Characteristics:

VDS = 5V
Sl.No
-VGS (V)
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10

30

ID (mA)

Result:
Thus the Drain and Transfer Characteristic of JFET is drawn, and form the
characteristics curve the following parameters are determined.
Drain resistance value (rd) =
Trans conductance value (gm) =
Amplification factor () =

31

-1

Pin diagram:

Symbol:

Circuit Diagram of SCR:

32

Expt. No.:

Date:
Characteristics Of Silicon Controlled Rectifier

Aim:
To draw the VI characteristics of the given SCR and to determine the gate
current for different anode voltage
Apparatus Required:
Item

S.No.
1.

(0-30) V

Quantity

DC (0-10mA),

2
1

Ammeter

DC (0-100A)

1
1

3.

Voltmeter

DC (0-10mA)
DC (0-30v)

4.

SCR

C106

5.

Bread board

6.

Resistors

7.

Connecting Wires

2.

RPS

Range

10K, 33K
-

1
1
1
1 set

Theory:
The SCR consists of four layers of semi conductor material alternatively P type
and N type .It can be brought of as an ordinary rectifier with a control element .The
control element is called Gate. The gate current determines the anode to cathode
voltage at which the device starts to conduct. The term ON & OFF is used to represent
the conduction and blocking mode of SCR respectively. Once switched ON the gate
has no further control. To switch the SCR the anode current has to be reduced below a
certain level called Holding Current. The SCR can also be triggered ON with the gate
open circuited with the anode to cathode voltage made large enough .In conduction
state the SCR behaves as an ordinary diode. The anode to cathode voltage at which the
SCR conducts is called Break over Voltage or Forward Blocking Voltage.
Forward Characteristics:
When anode is positive w.r.t cathode, the curve between V-I is called forward
characteristic. If the supply voltage is increased from zero, a point is reached when
SCR

33

Model Graph:

34

starts conducting. Under this condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops and
most of the voltage appears across the load resistance RL. If proper gate current is
made to flow, SCR can close at much smaller supply voltage.
Reverse Characteristics:
When the anode is made negative w.r.t to cathode, the curve
between V& I is called reverse characteristics. If the reverse voltage is increased,
avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting heavily in reverse
direction. It is similar to the ordinary PN junction diode.
Procedure:
1. The connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. The switch is kept open.
3. The anode supply is switched ON and the forward voltage is set to some
desired, value.(Eg 20 V )
4. There is no indication of current in the ammeter and the SCR is in OFF
state.
5. Now the Gate supply is switched ON and the SPST switch is closed.
6. The gate bias voltage is increased slowly.
7. At some value of gate current the SCR will be triggering ON and it is
indicated by the ammeter in the anode circuit.
8. Also the voltage across the SCR will suddenly fall to around 0.7 V. This
value of gate current required to trigger the SCR is noted.
9. Now with SCR in ON state the gate terminal is made open by opening
the SPST Switch The anode current is slowly reduced by reducing the
supply voltage. At some value of anode current the SCR is turned OFF.
10. This is indicated by a sudden rise in the voltmeter reading and the
Ammeter reading will suddenly become zero.
11. The anode current below which SCR turns OFF is the HOLDING
CURRENT and is noted.
12. The SCR is turned ON once again and the anode current is reduced to
the Holding level.
13. The anode current is varied from holding current to 10 mA and in each
step the forward voltage drop across SCR is noted.
14. The readings are tabulated and the experiment is repeated with different
forward break down voltage.

35

Tabulation for SCR:

IG =
Sl. No.

VAK(V)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11

36

IA(mA)

15. As Break over voltage is increased, the gate current required to trigger
the SCR will decrease.
16. To determine the leakage current in the blocking state the connections
are made as per circuit diagram.
17. The power supply is Switched ON and the anode voltage is increased in
steps. The anode current is noted in each step and tabulated.
18. The graph is plotted between forward voltage and forward current. The
break over voltage and holding current are marked on the graph
Result:
Thus the given SCR characteristics were drawn and the following parameters
are measured.
Holding Current (IH)

mA.

Break over Voltage (VBO)

V.

Holding Voltage (VH)

V.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is SCR?
2. Draw the symbol and structure of SCR.

37

CLIPPERS
Positive Clipper:
560
F G

1N 4007

Vo

Negative Clipper:
560
F G

1N 4007

Vo

CLAMPERS
Positive Clamper:
1 uF
F G
1 N 4 0 07

Vo

Negative Clamper:
1uF
F G

1N 4007

38

Vo

Ex.No:

Date:
CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS

AIM:

To construct and test clippers and clampers

APPARATUS REQUUIRED:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

RPS, Function generator , CRO,

IC 741,
Resistors, Capacitors
Bread board, Connecting wires

THEORY:
CLIPPERS:

Clippers have the ability to clip off a portion of the input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform.. The half wave recitifier is an example of
the simplest form of diode clipper one resistor and diode. Depending upon the
orientation of the diode , the positive or negative region of the input signal is clipped
off.
Clippers are of two : I . Series ii. Parallel
Series configuration is defined as one where diode is in series with the load, while the
parallel the diode is connected in parallel to the load.
CLAMPERS:

The clamping network is one that will clamp a signal to different dc level. The circuit
has a diode, resistor and a capacitive element, but it can also employ an independent dc
supply to introduce an additional shift. The magnitude of R and C must be chosen that
the time constant = RC is large enough that the voltage across the capacitor does not
discharge significantly during the interval diode is nonconducting.
PROCEDURE:

(i)Connect the differentiator circuit. Adjust the signal generator to produce a 1V peak
a. sine wave at 100Hz.
b. square wave at 100 Hz
(ii) Observe i/p and o/p waveform on the oscilloscope .Measure and record the peak
value of Vo and the phase angle of Vo w.r.t Vi.
(iii) Connect the integrator circuit Adjust the signal generator to produce a 1V peak
a. sine wave at 5kHz.
b. square wave at 5kHz
iv.Observe and record the input and the output waveforms.

39

Clampers:

Clippers:

Input Signal:

Input Signal:

Positive Clamped Output:

Negative Clipped Output:

Negative Clamped Output:

Positive Clipped Output:

Tabulation
Positive Clamper:
Amplitude
(in volts)

Negative Clamper:
Period
(in sec)

Amplitude
(in volts)

Input

Input

Output

Output

40

Period
(in sec)

RESULT:
Thus clippers and clampers circuits were designed, constructed and tested.

41

Circuit Diagram
FWR with Filter

FWR without Filter

Ex.No:

Date:
42

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER

Aim:
To find the specifications of the Full Wave Rectifier with and with out filter and
generate a desired D.C Voltage.

Apparatus Required:
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Item
Diode
Resistor
Transformer
Capacitor
CRO

Range
Qty
IN4007
1
1K
1
12-0-12 V
1
100F
1
(0-30)MHz 1

Theory
A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating
dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which
one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle
of the applied ac voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward
biased and D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains OFF. The
load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse
biased and D2 becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2 conducts. The
load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.

43

Output waveform:

Tabular Column
FWR with Filter
Vs (Input Voltage) =------------------T=------------------ Hz
Rload

Vm

Vr(p-p)

Vrms

Vdc= VmVr(p-p) /2

( )

(V)

(V)

=Vr / 2

(V)

RF=Vrms /Vdc

FWR without Filter

Rload

Vm

Vdc = 2Vm/

Vrms= Vm / 2

( )

(V)

(V)

(V)

44

RF= ((Vrms /Vdc )2-1) 1/2

Rectifier without filter

When no filter circuits is present, output voltage Vdc = Vm/.
The RMS value of the secondary voltage of the transformer is

Vrms = Vm/2
Im

= Idc

Rectifier with filter

Given Vdc and Idc with a suitable size of capacitor in the circuit, the output D.C.
level comes to Vm Ripple factor of HWR with capacitor filter is given by
R.F = Vac/Vdc

Procedure
1. The circuit connections are made for the designed vales.
2. The supply voltage is switched ON.
3. The D.C voltage and current are noted down.

Result:
Practical value of ripple factor (without filter) = _____________
Practical value of ripple factor (with filter)

= _____________

Hence the FWR with and without filter is constructed for the design
specifications.

45

Circuit Diagram:

Figure -1
Thevenins equivalent circuit:

Figure -2

46

Expt.No.:

Date:
Verification of Thevenins Theorem & Nortons Theorem
a) Verification of Thevenins Theorem

Aim:
To verify Thevenins theorem both analytically and experimentally.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No.

Equipments &
Components

RPS

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Resistor

Bread Board

Range / specification

Quantity

(0-30) V
DC (0-10) mA
DC (0-30) mA

2
1
1

DC (0-20) V
1K , 2.2K ,10K ,4.7K

,2K

Each one

---------------

1
As per

6
Theory:

Connecting wires

---------------

Requirements

Theorem Statement:
Thevenins theorem states that any two terminal linear network having a
number of voltage, current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a resistance,
where the value of the voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage across the two
terminals of the network, and resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance measured
between the terminals with all the energy sources replaced by their internal resistances.
Original Network:

Figure -3

47

Theoretical Calculation for Thevenins Theorem:

To calculate the Thevenins load current:
:

Figure -4
The current I1, I2 and I3 are the three loop currents in figure-4 . The load current IL is
same as the current in loop-3.
i.e IL =I3
Refer figure-4 .By applying loop current method ,we get the following Matrix

|| =

=4.3K

- (-3.3K)

48

=4.3

[17.92-4.84]

=(4.3

13.08

=56.244

+3.3

[-10.56-0]

)- (3.3

- 34.848

+0

[-10.56]

= 21.396

|3| =

=(4.3

-(-3.3

+20

=4.3

[84

=(4.3

51

=219.3

-163.35

-33

]+3.3

+(3.3

(-49.5
49.5

-0)+20(7.26
+(20 7.26

+145.2

=201.15
I3= (|3| / || )= ((201.15

) / ( 21.396

To calculate the Thevenins voltage Vth::

49

)) = 9.4

= 9.4 mA

-0)

Figure -5
By loop analysis (matrix method) calculate the two currents from loop-1 and loop-2 as
I1 and I2 respectively.
Refer figure-5 .By applying loop current method, we get the following Matrix
=

||=

=24.08

|1|=

=112

|2| =

= (15+ (

-49.5

/ 13.19

+66

)=

)
)x(2.2

=13.19

=62.5

= -64.5

I2=( |2| / |1|) = (1.5

Vth= (15+ I2 x 2.2

- 10.89

= (15+0.251)
= 15.251 Volts
To calculate the Thevenins resistance Rth:
50

=1.5

=11.4mA

Figure -6
Rx is the parallel combination of 1k and 3.3k resistors.

Figure -7
Rx=(

)/(3.3

+1

) =767

Ry is the serise combination of Rx and 100 resistors.

Figure -8
Ry= (767+100) = 867
Rth is the parallel combination of Ry and 2.2k resistors.
51

Rth=(867 // 2.2x103)=((867 x2.2x103) / (867 +2.2x103))

= 1907400 / 3067 = 621.91
To calculate the IL:

Figure -9
IL= Vth / (Rth+RL)=15.251 / (621.91+1000)=15.251 / 1621.91
=

A=9.403 mA

Voltage across load is VL

VL =IL x 1x103=

x 1x103= 9.403 volts

To calculate the Ise:

Figure -10
Ise= Vth / Rth =( 15.251v / 621.91 ) =0.0245 Amp =24.5 mA
To measure the Load current IL :

52

Figure -11
To measure the VL :

Figure -12
To measure the Vth :

53

Figure -13
Procedure:
General Circuit find load current (IL) and load Voltage: (VL)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Measure the voltage across the load using a voltmeter or multimeter after
Switching on the power supply. Let it be VL.
(3) Measure the current across the load I L by connecting the components as
shown in the circuit diagram.
To find Thevenins Voltage: (VTH)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Remove the load resistance and measure the open circuited voltage VTH
across the output terminal.
To find Thevenins Resistance: (RTH)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Remove the voltage source and replace it with an internal resistance as
shown.
(4) Using multimeter in resistance mode, measure the resistance across the
output terminal.
Thevenins Equivalent Circuit:
(1) Connect the power supply of VTH and resistance of RTH in series as shown in
the circuit diagram.
(2) Connect the load resistance RL and measure VL across the load resistance
using a voltmeter after switch on the power supply.
(3) Connect the power supply of VTH and resistance of RTH in series with load
resistor as shown in the circuit diagram and measure the load current IL.

54

To measure the Thevenins resistance Rth:

Figure -14
To measure the load current IL:

Figure -15
To measure the VL :

55

Figure -16
Tabulation 1:

Theoretical

E1

E2

(volts)

(volts)

20

15

VL (volts)
9.403

VTH

RTH

VL

(volts)

(ohms)

(volts)

15.251

621.91

9.403

value
Practical
value
Tabulation 2:

Theoretical value
Practical value

E1 (volts)

E2 (volts)

IL (mA)

IL (mA)

20

15

9.403

9.403

Result:
Thus the Thevenins Theorem is verified theoretically and practically.

Viva Voce Question:

1. State the Thevenins theorem.
2. State the Nortons theorem.
3. Give the formulae for converting the connections from star to
delta & delta to star.
4. Give an example to transform voltage source to current source.
5. Give an example to transform current source to voltage source
56

Circuit Diagram:

Figure -1
Nortons equivalent circuit:

57

Figure -2

58

Expt. No:

Date
(b) Verification of Nortons Theorem

Aim:
To verify Nortons Theorem both analytically and experimentally.
Apparatus Required:

S.

Equipments &

No

Components

Range / specification

Quantity

RPS

(0-30) V

Ammeter

(0-10) mA, (0-30) mA

Voltmeter

(0-20) V

Resistor

1K , 2.2K ,10K ,4.7K , 2K

Each one

Bread Board

------------------

Connecting wires

------------------

As required

Each one
1

Theory:
Theorem Statement
Nortons theorem states that any two terminal linear network having a number
of voltage, current sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single current source in parallel with a resistance. The value of the
current source is the short circuit current between the two terminals of the network, and
resistance is the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals of the network
with all the energy sources replaced by their internal resistances.
Original Network:

Figure -3
59

Theoretical Calculation for Nortons Theorem:

To calculate the Ise:

Figure -4
By loop analysis (matrix method) calculate the three currents from loop-1 and loop-2
and loop -3 as I1, I2 and I3 respectively.

|| =

=(4.3

-(-3.3

+0x
=(4.3
=((4.3
|| =(32.164

[12.32-4.84]
)(7.48
- 23.958

)
+ 3.3

) (3.3
= 8.206

60

[-7.26-0]
7.26

+ 0)
))

|3| =

=4.3

- (-3.3

+20
=4.3

[84

-33

=(4.3

51

=(219.3

- 163.35

] + 3.3

) + ( 3.3

(-49.5
49.5

+ 145.2

- 0) + 20(7.26
) + (20 x 7.26

=201.15
Ise=I3= |3| /|| = (201.15

/ 8.206

) = 0.0245 A=24.5mA

To calculate the Thevenins resistance Rth:

Figure -5
Rx is the parallel combination of 1k and 3.3k resistors.

Figure -6
Rx=(

)/(3.3
61

+1

) =767

-0)

Ry is the serise combination of Rx and 100 resistors.

Figure -7
Ry= (767+100) = 867
Rth is the parallel combination of Ry and 2.2k resistors.
Rth=(867//2.2x103)=((867 x2.2x103) / (867 +2.2x103)) = 1907400 /
3067
= 621.91
To calculate the IL:

Figure -8
After calculating Ise & Rth, IL can be calculated by applying current division
technique.
IL=Ise x (Rth / (Rth+RL) ) = 0.0245 x (621.91 / (621.91+1000)) =9.394x10-3A
=9.394 mA= 9.4 mA

62

Figure -9
IL can also be calculated from the above circuit i.e.figure-9 by converting the current
source in parallel with resistance Rth as equivalent voltage source in series with Rth.
Veq= Ise x Rth =0.0245 x 621.91= 15.236 volts
IL= Veq / (Rth+RL) =15.236/(621.91+1000)=9.394 x10 -3A=9.394 mA= 9.4 mA

63

Procedure :
General Circuit find load current: (IL)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Measure the current through the load using an ammeter or multimeter after
switch on the power supply. Let it be IL.
To find Nortons Current: (Ise)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Remove the load resistance and short circuit the output terminal. Then
measure the current through the short circuited terminals.
To find Nortons Resistance: (Rth)
(1) Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
(2) Remove the voltage source and replace it with an internal resistance as
shown.
(4) Using multimeter in resistance mode, measure the resistance across the
output terminal.
Nortons equivalent Circuit:
(1) Draw the short circuit current source Ise in parallel with Rth as shown in the
circuit diagram.
(2) Draw the equivalent circuit by replacing the current source I se in parallel
with Rth by a voltage source such that Veq = (Ise x Rth )volts.
(3) Then connect the circuit as shown in figure 9 and measure the load current
IL through the load resistor RL. This must be equal to IL.

64

To measure the load current IL:

Figure -9
To measure the short circuit load current Ise:

Figure -10
To measure the Rth:

Figure -11
To measure the load current IL:
65

Figure -12

Figure -13
Tabulation:
E1
(volts)
Theoretical

20

E2
(volts)
15

IL

Ise

(mA)

(mA)

9.4

9.4

Rth ()
621.91

Veq = Ise .

IL

Rth (volts)

(mA)

15.236

9.4

value
Practical
value
Result:
Thus Nortons Theorem is verified theoretically and practically.

Circuit Diagram:

66

Figure -1

67

Expt.No:

Date
Verification of Kirchoffs Laws

Aim
To verify (i) Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) (ii) Kirchhoffs voltage law
(KCL),both analytically and experimentally.
Apparatus Required:
Sl.
No.

Equipments &
Components

Range / specification

Quantity

RPS

(0-30) V

Ammeter

(0-10) mA, (0-5) mA,

3,3 each

Voltmeter

(0-20) V, (0-10) V, (0-5) V

1,2,2 respectively

Resistor

1K , 2.2K ,10K ,4.7K ,2K

One each

Bread Board

-------------

Connecting wires

------------

1
As per
requirement

Theory:
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL):
KCL states that the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.
i.e., Sum of all currents entering a node = Sum of all currents leaving a node
In case of AC circuits,
Phasor sum of incoming currents = Phasor sum of outgoing currents.at any
node.
Explanation

Figure -2

68

Let the currents I1, I2 , I3 , I4 flow through the

conductors meeting at the

junction oin figure-2. Taking currents flowing towards junction as positive & that
flowing away from junction as negative.
Applying KCL at node 0.we get
I1-I2-I3+I4=0

Figure -3

69

Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL):

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in
a circuit equals zero.
i.e., Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
In a closed circuit emf + IR =0.
To Determine the sign of EMF Source

To determine the sign of voltage across the Resistor.

If the loop direction & the current direction are the same then the voltage across
the impedance (i.e.,) the voltage drop is taken as negative. If the loop direction & the
current direction are opposite to each other then the voltage across the impedance
(i.e.,) the voltage drop is taken as positive.

Theoretical Calculation:
Refer figure-3 .By applying loop current method ,we get the following Matrix

Ix, Iy, Iz are the currents of the loops1,2 and 3 respectively as shown in the figure.
I1, I2, I3 are the branch currents given in circuit
I1=IX - IY
I2=Iy
I3=Iz
The other branch currents are I, I4 and I5 as marked in figure.

70

|| = (6.9

+ (4.7

+ ( 2.2
= (6.9

[120.44

= (831.036

394.988

|| = (251.82

+ (4.7

[ 84.04

184.228

+ ( 2.2

] + ( 2.2

x=
|x| = (10) (4.7

=10 120.44
=1204.4
|x| = (2465

+ 4.7
+ 930.6

[198

] -2.2

+330

y =

|y| =

- (10
+

71

[-150

) 83.74

|y|=

|y| =(1366.2

)+(840.04

(72.6

|y| =2134.4

|z| =

-(

)
+10

|z|

[150

|z| = 1035

]+4.7

+ 133.1

[33

]+10[83.74

+ 837.44

|z| = 2027.5
IX=|x| / | | = (2465

) / (251.82

)=

Iy=|y| /| | = (2134

) / (251.82

)=

Iz=|z| /| | = (2027.5
I1= IX - Iy = (

) / (251.82
-

I2= Iy=

A=8.474 mA

I3= Iz=

A=8.051mA

I4=Ix-Iz= (

)=

A=9.78 mA
A=8.474 mA
A=8.051 mA

) =1.31 x10-3A =1.31mA

) =1.73x10-3A =1.73 mA

I5=Iy-Iz= (
) =0.423x10-3A= 0.423 mA
For kirchoffs voltage laws, the voltage across each branch is
V1 (voltage across resistor 2.2 kohm) = I4 x 2.2 x103= (1.73 x10-3A)( 2.2 x103) = 3.8 V
V2 (voltage across resistor 10kohm)= I5 x 10 x103= (0.423x10-3A)( 10 x103) = 4.23 V
V3 (voltage across resistor 4.7kohm)= I1 x 4.7 x103= (1.31x103 )( 4.7 x103) = 6.15 V
V4 (voltage across resistor 1kohm)= I3 x 1 x103= (
V5 (voltage across resistor 2.2kohm)= I2 x 2 x103= (

72

A)( 1 x103) = 8.051 V

A)( 2 x103) = 16.94V

Figure -4

Figure -5
Tabulation branch current:

I (mA)
Theoretical
value

9.781

I1(mA)

I2(mA)

1.31

8.474

Practical value

73

I3 (mA)

I4(mA)

8.051

1.73

I5(mA)

0.423

Procerure:
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL):
(1) Connect the components as shown in the figure -5.
(2) Switch on the DC power supply and note down the corresponding ammeter
readings.
(3) Repeat the step 2 for different values in the voltage source.
(4) Finally verify KCL.

Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL):

(1) Connect the components as shown in the figure-6.
(2) Switch on the DC power supply and note down the corresponding voltmeter
readings.
(3) Repeat the step 2 for different values in the voltage source.
(4) Finally verify KVL.

74

Tabulation for node current in KCL:

S.No
1
2
3

Name of the
node
Node P
I=I3+I4
Node Q
I4=I5+I1
Node R
I2=I3+I5

Theoretical value

Practical value

9.781mA= (8.051+1.73 )mA

1.73mA= (0.423+ 1.31)mA
8.474mA= (8.051+0.423)mA

Figure -6
Tabulation for branch voltage:

Theoretical
value

V1
(volt)

V2
(volt)

V3
(volt)

V4
(volt)

V5
(volt)

3.8

4.23

6.157

8.051

16.948

Practical value

75

Tabulation for loop voltage:

Name of the
loop

S.No.

Loop 1

01

Loop 2
E2+V3-V2-V5=0
Loop 3

03

Practical value

10v = (3.8 +6.157)v

E1=V1+V3

02

Theoretical value

15+6.157-4.23-16.948)v = 0

8.051v = (3.8+4.23)v

V4=V1+V2

Viva voce Question

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

State Ohms law.

State Kirchhoffs current law & Kirchhoffs voltage law.
What is mean by Node & Mesh?
Write the current & Voltage division rule.
Mesh current method is based on KCL and node voltage method is based on KVLTrue or False. ?

Results:
Thus (i) Kirchhoffs Current Law & (ii) Kirchhoffs Voltage Law are verified.
S.No.

Name of the
Current

01

Theoretical value

I1

Circuit diagram:
76

Practical value

77

Expt. No.:

Date:
Verification of Super Position Theorem

Aim:
To verify super position theorem practically & theoretically for the given DC
circuit.
Apparatus Required:
S.No.

Components

01.

Regulated Power supply(RPS)

02.

Ammeter

03.

Multimeter

04.

Resistors

05.

Bread board

06.

Connecting wires

Range

Quantity

(0-30)V

(0-30)mA

---

560

---

1
As per
Requirement

Theory:
Super position Theorem:
In a network of linear resistances, containing more than one source, the
resultant current flowing at any one point is the algebraic sum of currents that would
flow at that point, if each source is considered separately, and all the other sources are
replaced by their equivalent internal resistance .
This last step is carried out by short circuiting all sources of constant voltage & opencircuiting all sources of constant current.
Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the (fig b) circuit diagram.
2. Vary the RPS2 and set an input voltage of 10 V .
3. Note down the ammeter reading IL1 in tabular column 1.
4. Make connections as per the (fig c) circuit diagram.
5. Vary the RPS1 and set an input voltage of 10 V.
6. Note down the ammeter reading IL2 in tabular column 2.
7. Make connections as per the (fig a) circuit diagram.
8. Find the total load current IL=IL1+IL2
9. Verify the same using theoretical calculation
Theoretical Calculation for Super position theorem:
78

Circuit diagram:

Step 1: Short circuit V2. Apply V1=20V

10

RPS (0-30V)
V1

15
I2

I1

25

+15

I1

20
=

-15

20

I2

I1 =1.45 A; I2 =1.09 A; IT1 =0.36 A

79

Step 2: Short circuit V1. Apply V2=15V

I2

I1

25

+15

I1

0
=

-15

+20

I2

-15

I1 =-0.81 A ; I2 =-1.363 A ; IT2 =0.54 A

Step 3: V1 & V2 are active. Apply V1=20V & V2=15V

I2

I1

25

+15

I1

20
=

-15
I1 = 0.63 A;

I2 = -0.27 A ;

+25

I2

-15

IT = 0.909 A

Thus IT = IT1 + IT2 . Super Position Theorem is proved.

80

Circuit Diagram for Super Position Theorem Practical Analysis:

Step 1: Both voltage sources are active.
10

RPS1 +
(10V)
-

15

+
A
-

RPS2
(10V)

(0-10mA)
MC

Fig (a)
Step 2: RPS2 alone is active.

IL2=

10

15

RPS2
(10V)

(0-10mA)
MC
-

Fig (b)
Step 3: RPS1 alone is active.

RPS1
(10V)

10

15

+
A

(0-10mA)
-

Fig (c)

81

IL1=

Tabulation 1: To measure IT1 & IL1 (For fig.b)

Voltage
(volts)

Theoretical
Current
IT2(A)

Practical
Current IL2
(A)

Theoretical

Practical

Current

Current IL1

IT1(A)

(A)

Tabulation 2
To measure IT2 & IL2 (for fig.c)

Voltage
(volts)

Tabulation 3
To measure both IT & IL (For fig. a)
RPS1
Voltage
(V)

RPS2
Voltage
(V)

Theoretical
Current IT
(A)

Practical
Current IL
(A)

IL = IL1+IL2
(A)

IT= IT1+IT2
(A)

Viva Voce Question:

1. State Super position theorem.
2. Can the super position theorem is applied to solve electric circuits
with diodes present in the circuit? Why?
3. Give an example to transform current source to voltage source.
4. Write down the formula to convert a delta connected circuit to star
connected circuit.
5. State the duality theorem.

Result:
Thus superposition theorem is verified practically &theoretically.

82

Circuit Diagram Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

1K

RPS (0-30V)

1K

DRB (RL )

Circuit to find VL:

1K

RPS (0-30V)
VS

DRB
RL

Model Graph:

Power ,P (mW)

Pmax

RL= RTH
Load resistance, RL in

83

(0-30V)MC

1K

Expt. No.:

Date:

Verification of Maximum power Transfer Theorem and Reciprocity

Theorem
(a).Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Aim:
To measure the power absorbed in a load and to verify that the power
absorbed in a load is maximum only when load resistance is equal to the source
resistance.
Apparatus Required:
S. No.
01
02
03

Name of the apparatus

Voltmeter
Resistance
DRB

04

RPS(D.C Supply)

Range/Rating
(0-30V) MC
1k

Quantity
1
2

(0-30V)

Theory:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that A load will
receive maximum power from a linear bilateral DC network when its total
resistive value is exactly equal to the Thevenin resistance of the network as
seen by load.
In a simpler form the circuit may contain a voltage source V S having
internal resistance RS and connected across a load RL. The maximum power
transfer theorem tells us that the load should be equal in magnitude to the
source resistance for maximum power to be absorbed by the load.
Procedure:
1. Make connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Select atleast five resistances (RL), two of them having values internal
resistance, two having values higher internal resistance and one having
value equal to internal resistance.
3. Change the value of RL one by one and measure the corresponding VL.
Calculate the power PL by the formula PL = VL2/ R ;and enter into the
table (2).
4. Plot a graph between RL and PL and find the RL corresponding to
maximum power transfer.
5. Verify the measured values of RL at maximum power transfer to be as
same as calculated and also verify graphically.

Tabulation :
84

Sl.
No.

Load Resistance,
RL (K)

Output Voltage, V0
(volts)

Power, P
(mW)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
Model Calculation:
Circuit Diagram:

1k

Vs = 15V

1k

Step 1: To find VTH

Open the circuit the load terminal RL.

R1=1k

85

DRB
RL

VTH

Vs= 15V
R2=1k

By voltage distribution rule:

REQ = 0.5 & VTH= VSR1 / (R1+R2) = 15V
Step 2: To find RTH:

Open circuit the load terminal RL.

Open circuit the current source and short circuit the voltage source.

R1=1k

R2=1k

RTH = R1 R2 / (R1 + R2 ) = 0.5

86

RTH

Step 3: Thevenins equivalent circuit for maximum power delivered.

RTH=0.5

I
RL = RTH

Vs= 15V

I = VTH / (R+REQ) = 15 / (0.5 + 0.5) = 15 A

Max power delivered at RL = I2RL = 112.5 W

Viva Voce Questions:

1) State the Maximum power transfer theorem.
2) State the condition for maximum power transferred from source to
load.
3) What is mean by Mesh or Loop?
4) State the duality theorem.
5) Give the formulae for converting the connections from star to delta &
delta to star.

87

Result:
Thus maximum power transfer theorem is verified practically and theoretically.

88

Reciprocity Theorem Practical Analysis

Circuit Diagram:
12

2
3

1
RPS (0-30V)
VS=30V

4
6

2
Step 1: To measure the current at branch 3-4.

12

RPS (0-30V)
VS=30V

4
6

(0-10mA)
MC

I1
2
Step 2: To measure the current at branch 1-2.

12

2
3

(0-10mA)
MC

I2

89

RPS (0-30V)
VS=30V
4

Expt. No.:

Date:
(b) Verification of Reciprocity Theorem

Aim:
To verify the reciprocity theorem for the given circuit, practically and
theoretically.
Apparatus Required:
S.No.

Name of the apparatus

01.

Ammeter

02.

RPS (Power Supply)

03.

Resistor

04.

Connecting wires

Range/Rating

Quantity

(0-10)mA

(0-30)V

12, 2 ,4,6

1 each

As per the
requirement

Theory:
Reciprocity Theorem states that in any passive linear bilateral network, if the
single voltage source VS in branch x produces the current response I Y in branch y, then
the removal of the voltage source from branch x and its insertion in branch y will
produce the current IY in branch x.
In simple terms, interchange of an ideal voltage source and an ideal ammeter
in any passive, linear, bilateral circuit will not change the ammeter reading.
Note: The reciprocity theorem is thus applicable only to single source network. It is,
therefore, not a theorem employed in the analysis of multi-source network. In other
words, the location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be interchanged
without a change in current.
Procedure:
1.

Make connection as per the circuit diagram.

2.

Calculate the values of I1, by connecting the ammeter at branch 3-4 and
tabulate.

3.

Now connect the power supply at branch 3-4 and measure the current in the
ammeter connected at branch 1-2.tabulate the value as I2.

4.

Compare the theoretical value and tabulated value of current to be the same
to verify the reciprocity theorem.
90

Tabulation:
Supply
voltage,VS
(volts)

Current at
branch 3-4,I1
(mA)

Current at
branch 1-2, I2
(mA)

Model Calculation:
Step 1: To measure current I1 at branch 3-4
2

12
1

RPS (0-30V)
VS =30 v

I1

I2

6
4

18

I2

30
=

-6

12

I1

I1 = 0.71 A

91

Step 2: To measure current I2 at branch 1-2

12

4
6
RPS (0-30V)
VS=30 v
2

18

I2

-6

12

I1

0
=

-30

I2 = 0.71A
I2 = I1 . Thus, Reciprocity Theorem is verified.

Result:
Thus the reciprocity theorem is verified theoretically and practically.

92

Circuit Diagram:

Parallel Resonance Circuit:

Series Resonance Circuit:

93

Expt. No.:

Date:
Frequency Response of Series and Parallel Resonance Circuit

Aim:
To obtain the resonance frequency and bandwidth of series and parallel
resonance circuits.
Apparatus Required:

S.No.
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

Name of the
apparatus
RPS
Ammeter
Function
Generator
Resistors
Capacitor
DIB
Breadboard
Connecting

Range
Dual (0-30) V
AC (0-30 ) mA
(0-3)MHz
10, 5
1F
-

wires

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
As per
Requirement

Theory:
At resonance XL = XC and impedance Z = R. Where R is the resistance of the
coil. The R and XL of the coil determines the quality of the circuit which is given by
Q = XL / RL
Point f1and f2 are located at 70.7 percent of the maximum current for the series
circuit. They are called as half power point and the frequency difference between f1
(lower cut off frequency) and f2 (upper cut off frequency) is called the band width.

94

Model Graph:
Series Resonance:
current
Imax

Imax / 2

frequency

Parallel Resonance:
Current

Imin . 2
Imin

Frequency

95

The formula for calculating the band width is given by

BW = f2 f1 .
Band width is related to the quality factor(Q). Its given by
BW = fr / Q
Resonance frequency of the series resonant circuit is calculated using the formula
fr = 1 / 2 (LC).
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The resonance frequency is obtained by keeping the value of L,C,R constant
3. The resonance frequency is obtained using the formula fr = 1 / 2 (LC).
4. Varying the value of frequency and note down the corresponding current flow
in the circuit.
5. Graph is plotted between frequency (x axis) and current (y axis).
6. Same procedure is to be followed for both series and parallel circuits.

96

Tabulation:
Series Resonance:

Sl. No

Frequency
(Hz)

Parallel Resonance:

Current (mA)

Sl. No

01

01

02

02

03

03

04

04

05

05

06

06

07

07

08

08

09

09

10

10

11

11

12

12

13

13

97

Frequency
(Hz)

Current (mA)

Model Calculation:
Parallel Resonance:
R= 10, L=1 H C= 1F
Admittance of the parallel resonance circuit is given by
Y G jB G j (C

1
)
L

( where G is conductance and B is susceptance)

At resonance B=0

fr

fr

1
=0
L

1
2 LC
1
2 LC

= 159Hz

1
= 100
r RC

Bandwidth =

r
= 10rad/sec
Q

f1

1
1

4 RC 2

2 RC1

1
= 79.6Hz
LC

f2

1
1

4 RC 2

2 RC1

1
= 160.5Hz
LC

Bandwidth = f 2 f1 =80.9 Hz

98

Series Resonance:
R= 5, L=40 m H, C= 1F
Impedance of the series resonance circuit is given by

Z R j( X L X c )

At resonance:

X L L : XC

Therefore L =

fr

1
C
1
(where = 2f)
C

1
2 LC

Q factor =

Bandwidth =

fr

1
2 LC

1 L
= 40
R C

R
= 19.89Hz
2 L

= 796Hz

f1 f r

R
= 786Hz
4 L

f2 fr

R
= 806 Hz
4 L

99

RESULT:
Thus the resonant frequency and band width of series and parallel resonance
circuits was obtained and the graph is plotted.

Viva Voce Question:

1. What is meant by resonance?
2. What is the condition for resonance circuits?
3. Define Bandwidth.
4. Define Q-factor.
5. What is meant by half power frequencies?

100

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DC SERIES RL

DC SERIES RC

101

Ex.No

TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF RL AND RC CIRCUITS

AIM
To study the transient response of RL and RC circuit using series D.C and A.C
circuit trainer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No

Apparatus Name

1.

Series A.C and D.C circuit

Range

trainer kit

Type

Quantity

2.

D.C ammeter

(0-200) mA

3.

A.C Ammeter

(0-200 )mA

4.

Patch chords (or) wires

As required

THEORY
RESPONSE OF AN R-L CIRCUIT
Consider the RL circuit shown in fig.1 with switch S and applied DC voltage V.
When the switch S closed, we can determine the complete solution to apply the kirchoffs
voltage law to the circuit.

102

d
V = Ri + L i
dt

-------------------------- (!)

Divide equation 1 by L
d
i =R i + V
-------------------------- (2)
dt L
L
The above equation is linear differential equation; it should refer like this,

+px=k
Whose solution is

x = e pt ke pt dt + ce pt----------------------

(3)
Where c is arbitrary constant. In a similar way to write the current equation,
i = ce

( R )t
L

( )t

+e

V e(R L ) dt
L
t

R
V
i = ce ( L )t + ---------------------------R

(4)

To determine the constant c to apply the initial condition at t=0 (i.e.) just before closing the
switch and the current in the inductor is zero, so at t=0, I=0 to substitute in equation 4, we
get,
V
R
Substitute equation 5 in 4,

-------------------------

C=

i=

V
R

i=

exp

R
1 exp

(5)

t-------------------------

(6)

In the above equation, steady state part V/R and the transient part (V/R) e

103

-(R/L) t

In Fig. 2 when switch S is closed, the response reaches the steady state
value after some time interval. Thus the transient period is defined as the time taken for the
current to reach the final value.

DC RESPONSE OF AN R-C CIRCUIT

Consider the RC circuit shown in fig. 3. with switch S and applied DC voltage V.
When switch S closed, we can determine the complete solution to apply Kirchoffs voltage
law to the circuit.

1
V = Ri + c idt----------------------

(7)

104

Differentiate the above equation,

d
O = R i +i
d
t
c
Divide the equation 8 by R
d
i +1
dt

----------------------- (8)

i = 0----------------------- (9)

The above equation is a linear differential function with only complementary

solution. The solution for this equation is
i = Cet / Rc----------------------

(10)

When switch S is closed at t=0, the capacitor never allow sudden changes in
voltage, it will act as a short circuit. At t=0,i=V/R. substitute this current to equation 4.
C=V/R
The current equation becomes,

i=

V t / RC
e
------------------------R

(11)

InFig. 4 After 4TC the curve reaches the 99 percent of it final value. In that
solution equation 5, the quantity 1/RC is time constant and is denoted by

105

PROCEDURE
D.C SERIES R-L
1. Switch ON the CRO.
2. Connect 230v supply to the trainer.

3. See the waveform in the CRO, it should be exponential manner.

D.C SERIES R-C

1. Switch ON the CRO.
2. Connect 230v supply to the trainer.
3. See the waveform in the CRO, it should be inverse exponential manner.

RESULT
Thus the Transient response of RL and RC circuits are studied and the output waveforms
are seen using CRO.

Viva Voce Question:

1. What is meant by transient response?
2. Define natural frequency.
3. Define time constant and what is its significance.
4. Define Damping ratio.
5. What are the applications of transient circuits?

106