ACOUSTICS AND LIGHTING

Instructor: Architect Leah Ybaez-Martin

SOUND
- is a physical wave or simply a series of pressure
vibrations
- for airborne sound, the medium is air
- for structure borne sound, the medium is
building materials such as concrete, steel, wood, glass or
combinations of all these
- it is always assumed that the hearer has a pair of
healthy young ears with the direction range of 20 to 20,000
Hz

ACOUSTICS
- is a branch of science that deals with the control
and propagation of sound.

Objectives of acoustics
1. to reinforce needed sound
2. to eliminate unwanted sound
3. to prevent unwanted sound to be transmitted into an
enclosed space

THE NATURE OF SOUND

sound
- originates from a vibrating body. It is pressure
have in an elastic medium. It is not restricted, it spreads
outward from its source in all directions diminishing in
intensity inversely as the square of the distance from the
source increases
- these vibrations from the body come outward as
compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding air

rarefaction
- the instantaneous, local reduction in density of a
gas resulting from passage of a sound wave, or the region in
which the density is reduced at some instant
- elongation of sound
- the vibration from a body are called frequencies

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
speed of velocity
- 1125 ft/sec at 20F, the velocity increases 1ft/sec
for every 10 rise in temperature (in Fahrenheit)
where:
v = velocity
F = frequency
d = distance of the medium
through which the sound travels

frequency
- is the number of cycles of vibrations executed per
second. Humans can hear sounds within the 40 vps to
16,000 vps range

molecular absorption
- a sound maybe covered up or absorbed by another
sound. This phenomena is called masking of sound and
this is very useful in acoustics
- the sound masking is usually of lower frequency
than the sound it masks

soporific effect
- that effect brought about by a low-steady sound

frequencies
- cycles per second (cps) or vibrations per second
(vps) and the compressions and rarefactions are called
sound waves

WAVELENGTH
- distance between two crests of a sound wave
- low frequency sounds have longer
wavelengths than high frequency sounds. The wavelength
is also the distance traveled by sound in one second divided
by the frequency of the wave
- example:
the wavelength of a 100 cycle wave is a little of
eleven feet long and a five hundred cycle wave
WL = distance traveled by sound
wave in one second / the frequency of
the wave
GEOMETRY OF REFLECTED SOUND

BEHAVIOR OF SOUND IN A ROOM

When a sound wave in a room strikes a surface in
a room, part of the energy is reflected, part is absorbed
by the surface and part is transmitted to the surface
REFLECTION OF SOUND ON A SURFACE
A surface that is rigid, flat and smooth usually
reflects sound. The reflection of sound on a surface
follows the behavior of reflected light, meaning that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

One characteristic of sound is that, like light, it can

bend around an obstruction known as diffraction of
sound. Low frequency sounds are diffracted more easily
than high frequency sounds

Wh
en the wavelength of a sound is just the same as one of the

rooms dimensions, a standing wave is created. When a

sound comes from a source, the hearer of the sound actually
hears two types of sounds:
1. direct or original sound
- from the source and directly delivered to the hearer
2. reflected sound
- from all directions of the room
for a sound to be heard by a listener comfortably, the
reflected sound must come to him not later than 0.05 of a
second or in terms of distance, the direct sound and the
path of the reflected sound should not exceed 57 ft

Glass
Aluminum

5000
5800
At 22C

16,400
19,000
At 72F

SPEED OF SOUND
As sound travels much slower than the speed of
light, the resulting defects in many rooms are echoes and
reverberations
When the reflected sound, which reaches an
observer, is delayed more than about 0.058 seconds relative
to the direct sounds, they are distinguished as echoes.
Reverberation consist of successive reflections of
sounds in a room, and since sound travels only about 1130
ft or 344 m/sec, these usually will be a rather long
succession of these reflections before the sound dies away
to inaudibility
Thus, the speed of sound plays a significant role in
architectural acoustics
RESONANCE

VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
Sound travels at different velocities, depending upon
the medium. On air, at sea level, sound velocity is 344
m/sec or 1130 fps, slow compared to light at 186,000
miles per second. Sound travels much faster in liquids and
solids than it does on air.
SOUND PROPAGATION VELOCITY IN VARIOUS MEDIA
medium
Air
Water
Wood
Brick
Concrete
Steel

VELOCITY
meter per second
344
1410
3300
3600
3700
4900

feet per second

1130
4625
10,825
11,800
12,100
16,000

Is what happens to a body when another vibrating

body vibrates and initiates. The other body to vibrate in
harmony with it
Resonance can be useful to reinforce sounds at
some specific frequencies
This happens only however, if the resonating body
or resonator has a dimension which is a multiple of the
wavelength of the sound wave from the originating body

Low frequencies have more resonance than the high

frequencies because low frequencies have longer
wavelengths and therefore more multipliers to the
dimensions of the room than high frequencies
Yet, there are sounds that require less resonance to
give presence to the sounds
SOUND ABSORPTION
The sound phenomenon that happens to sound
when it strikes a surface is that the sound is absorbed by the
surface. Actually, what really happens is, when sound wave
strikes an absorbent surface, the sound waves through
friction on the pores of the surface are transformed into
heat energy
THE TYPES OF ABSORBENT SURFACES ARE:
soft and porous surfaces
- such as corkboard, foam or Styrofoam or any material
which has this property like draperies on the walls and
carpets on the floor

panel absorber
- consisting of two layers of materials with an airspace
between them. The outer layer, being of porous type and
the inner layer of solid background

cavity resonator
- Consisting of an enclosed body
of air which is connected by a
narrow passage with the space
containing the sound waves.
This type of absorber is
effective only at the resonant
frequency, meaning it can only
absorb some sounds
When the sound wave is transformed into heat
energy, the sound will no longer be reflected. The sound
heard is only the direct sound
This sound absorption efficiency of a material is
measured in terms of units known as sobius, in which one
sabin means perfect absorption and 0 means no absorption
Number 1 absorption
- open window or door
- a line of pillows
- two closets facing each other and
sandwiching a wall

DECIBEL
- measurement of the intensity of sound
- abbreviated (db)
40db
- limit for comfortable hearing
100-120 db
- can no longer be comfortable, that is painful to the ear
ECHO
- reflected sound
REVERBERATION
- is a series of echoes coming from the same source
REVERBERATION TIME
- is the time in seconds that a reflected sound diminishes for

the case by 60db after the original sound has stopped

- formula
RT = 0.05V
a 1s 1
where:
V = volume of room in cubic feet
s1 = area of an absorbent surface
a1 = coefficient of absorption of a surface
- example
an auditorium with a volume of 80,800 is to
be acoustically treated to serve an acceptable
reverberation time with or without audience.
The auditorium has been provided with the
following materials such as:
materials
area in feet
coefficient of absorption in
(s1)
absorption
sabins (a1)
Wood
6,928
.03
208
Plaster
7,440
.033
246
Metal
628
.01
6.3
Glass
408
.025
10.2
Seats
550
.017
93.5
504.01
units in
sabins
-computation
RT = 0.05V
a 1s 1
RT = .05(80,800)
504
= 4040
504
= 8.0 seconds
add 200 auditors at 4.17 each
200 x 4.17 = 834
+ 504
1338
RT = .05(80,800)

1338
= 3.0 seconds
from table: the ideal RT is from 1 to 1.5
seconds
-corrections
1.5 = .05(80,800)
(1338 + x)
1.5(1338 + x) = .05(80,800)
x = 1355.3
TRANSIENT SOUND
- is the term applied to the direct sound which if the
originating body stops, vibrating also stops.
SOUND FIELDS IN AN ENCLOSED SPACE
When a sound propagated in an enclosed space
reaches a wall or other large (with respect to wavelength)
obstruction, part is reflected and part is absorbed.
The sound at any point in the room is then the
combination of direct sound from walls and other
obstructions.
DIFFUSION
When the reflections are so large that the sound
level becomes uniform throughout the room. (no acoustical
shadow).
Most rooms dont have such a high level of reflection
that a diffuse field is created:
1. near field near the source
2. free field at a distance
3. reverberant field near the walls

SOUNDS MAYBE CLASSIFIED AS:

1. ordered
2. disordered
SOUND FIELDS CAN BE RECOGNIZED AS FOLLOWS
near field
- generally within one wavelength of the lowest
frequency of sound produced by the source.
- the maximum wavelength for the male human
voice is 3.30mts or 11 ft

reverberant field
- near large obstructions such as walls
- is dominant and approaches a diffused condition

free field
- exist between the near and reverberant field
- the intensity varies as pressure squared and
inversely with the distance

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

States that the intensity of sound is inversely
proportional to distance from the source.

in an ordered sound, the instantaneous pressure

follows a regular pattern
in a disordered sound, the peak of acoustic
power occur more or less at random, the periodic
qualities of ordered sound are lacking.
THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOUNDS IN A BUILDING
1. noise unwanted sound
2. music generally not always made up of ordered sound
3. speech consists of both ordered and disordered sound
THE HEALING POWER OF SOUND
In many ancient cultures, the power of sound played
a major role in developing the spiritual and physical well
being of the people.
Today, due to the growing interest of alternative
medicine. The use sound for therapeutic purpose is once
again regaining popular acceptance.
Sound waves from the outside enter the ear and are
converted into nerve impulses. They are transmitted to the
brain which interprets them as sounds that we hear.

Cheering during a basketball game heightens emotions

and develops a sense of group unity
Jazz and classical music generally provides a feeling of

relaxation
Noise from the rush hour traffic causes anxiety and
tension
These are only few instances where sound only
becomes a part of our everyday life, but also affects it as
well.

MUSIC THERAPHY
Music makes a powerful impact on the senses. Often
touching feelings too deep or too difficult to express in
words. The approach of music therapy practitioners can be
classified into two:
The response approach
- focuses on the therapeutic power of music
heard from an external source and the body and minds
reaction to such music.
The expression approach
- identifies musics power to come not only form
its reception but also from its creation.
Music allows us to express a wide range of emotions
from frustrations to extreme joy; music also reveals deep
feelings and problems
This psychotherapeutic effect is the reason why
music therapy has become popular in treating the mentally
ill and the mentally handicapped. Playing music is also
encourage among the physically disabled people who need
to improve their movement and control.
DESIGN OF ROOMS FOR SPEECH WITHOUT THE USE OF
SOUND SYSTEM
1. The main objective in the design of rooms of this kind to
insure that every member of the audience can clearly
hear what the speaker says.
2. Another aim is to preserve the natural qualities of a
speakers voice so that each member of the audience can
appreciate the dramatic effect intended by the speaker.

NATURE OF SPEECH SOUNDS AND EFFECTS OF ROOM

ACOUSTICS
1. Speech should consist of a flow of various combinations of
vowel and consonant sounds. The consonant sounds are
merely of a transient nature, meaning they are short and
rapidly changing. Generally, it is the recognition of the
consonant sounds which is a factor in speech
intelligibly in an auditorium.
2. If every member of an audience is to hear well, the sound in
each seat must be loud enough, this being the case, there
should be a minimum of background noises which
will tend to mask the wanted sound.
3. Reverberation time should also be reduced to a tolerable
level because the reverberations of the previous syllables will
obscure the sound of each syllable.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH

1. The direct sound shall be as strong as possible because the
sound weakens as the distance from the source increases.
2. It is also important that the direct sound shall not be
obstructed by any means.
3. The best way to insure that the direct sound will go to every
seat is either:
The source of the sound should be located
higher than any head in the audience.
By seating the audience in such a way that at least
3 inches is provided between the sight from one
row and the sight from the next.

4. Because speech is directional, in plan, the seats should be

positioned so that none falls outside an angle of 140, the
sound intensity will decay rapidly.
5. In order for the direct sound to be reinforced by the
reverberant sound, reflectors should be used and angled
towards that part of the audience farthest from the speaker.

Note: 140 covers both the horizontal and vertical

7. It has been found out that the best volume for rooms of
this kind is 100 ft3 per seat.
8. After the size and shape of the room has been determined,
the next step is to design the surface so that the
reverberation time will be suitable.

6. The

reflected paths should not exceed 50ft more than the direct
sound path.

Recommended reverberation times for various

volume levels
10,000 ft3
0.7 of a second
20,000 ft3
0.78 of a second
40,000 ft3
0.82 of a second
100,000 ft3
0.9 of a second
400,000 ft3
1.0 of a second

If the reverberation time of the structure is

larger or longer than the acceptable level, then the
only way to remedy the fault is to provide sound
absorbent materials on those surfaces that reflected
sound.
CLOUDS
- pieces of cloth
hung on the ceiling to
absorb sound not less
than 2 ft in depth; 2 ft
because the wavelength
of low frequency sound
is usually 2 ft
- the best location for the sound absorbents in a
room intended for speech is at the end of the room away
from the speaker and also to those surfaces which might
produce unwanted echoes, like the rear of the wall of the
hall, especially if the wall is concave.

reflected sounds towards the rear of the audience. If

balcony is part of the design, then the soffit will provide
as a reflector to that part of the audience under the
balcony.

THE DESIGN OF ROOM FOR MUSIC

Factors that affect good production of music
1. definition
- refers to hearing clearly each type of musical instrument so
that they are readily distinguished from each other.
2. balance
- is the correct loudness ratio between the various sections
of the orchestra.
3. blend
- is the hearing of a body of instruments as a homogeneous
source rather than as a collection of individual sources.
4. a low level of intruding noise

ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ROOMS FOR MUSIC

All the reflections of the original sound will
blend into the direct sound and gives body to the music.
These are known as first reflections and should
arrive after the direct sound is not more than 0.35 second.
All the other reverberant sounds which come later, this
time will produce a muffled effect to the original sound.
These are the sounds that should be eliminated especially if
among these sounds, there are one to two reflected sounds
that stick out above the others and these are the
echoes.

How to achieve good definition

1. The direct and the first reflected sounds must be
maintained at a high intensity.
2. The shape of the room should be considered in terms of
the factors related to the design of rooms intended for
speech.
3. There should be a reflector above the stage to throw

How to achieve fullness of tone

This can be achieved again if the first reflectors
assist the direct sound.

How to achieve balance

This can be achieved by the proper location of the
various sections of the orchestra. Weaker instruments
should not be hidden behind stronger instruments.

ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHURCHES AND

CATHEDRALS
1. All the acoustical design will depend on whether speech or
music is considered the more important element on the
nature of the religious service.
2. If speech is of first importance, the church will be designed
in accordance with the principles in the design of speech.
If the music is of primary importance, then the
design should be in accordance with the principles for the
design of rooms for music.
3. A church which has separate cell fro transept or chapel
which opens off to the main body of the church has the
acoustical disadvantages that the reverberation in the cells
may be different from the main bodys. Some particular
notes may continue in the cells long after the main
reverberation has stopped.
SPEECH REINFORCEMENTSYSTEM OR SOUND SYSTEMS AID
TO THE NATURAL SOUND
Reasons for using sound reinforcement system
1. The original sound may not be loud enough to be heard by
every member of the audience therefore sound system may

be used.
2. There might be too much noise coming from outside as well
as within the audience that tends to cover the original
sound.
3. The acoustics of the building itself maybe poor and well
interfere with the unaided speech sound and for this reason,
reinforcement system is required to reduce bad acoustics
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF SOUND
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM
1. The audience must hear the words clearly without distortion
and in a reasonable loudness.
2. for realistic effect, the speech should appear to be coming
from the human speaker and not from any loud speaker.
MICROPHONES
Two types of microphone
1. omnidirectional microphone
- equally sensitive sound to sounds arriving at it from any
direction
2. directional microphone
- receives sound from one direction. For speaking purposes,
the directional microphone is better to use because it
reduces the feedback

reverberant sounds will be picked up

For good hearing and reception, the main speaker should
stay in a fixed position and should not vary substantially the distance
between his mouth and the microphone
An ideal situation in the used of speech reinforcement
system is that the listener will hear not only the natural sound but
also the sound coming from a loudspeaker
Under this condition, the hearing of the natural and the
loudspeaker merely magnifies the sound
Another effect to consider is that the listener should be able
to know the location of the source of sound, that is, that the sound
appears to come from the original source and not from the
loudspeaker. To achieve this effect, the natural sound should be
heard first by the listener before the sound of the loudspeaker and
this is known as time delayed sound in which thru mechanical
means, the loudspeaker sound should be made to come out a
little bit later than the natural sound, usually at an interval of
0.035 of a second

LOUDSPEAKER
- to give natural as much as possible as well as to
make the sound louder
- diffuses low frequency sounds, projects
directionally high frequency sounds
- should be placed one at the left, the other at the
right
For good reaction of the microphone, the man speaking
should be from 18 to 2 ft from the microphone. If too close, the low
frequency sounds will be accentuated. If farther away, the

DESIGN OF ROOMS INTENDED FOR SPEECH

REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS

1. in general, rooms intended for speech or music should be

designed by an architect in such a way that future use of the
room with the aid of speech reinforcement system should be
incorporated into the design rather than designing the room
without this consideration and then using reinforcement
systems later on
2. rooms which have good acoustical requirements are usually
better rooms for speech reinforcement system
TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS WITH RESPECT TO LEVELS OF
SOUND
1. The high-level system
- which consists of a single loudspeaker with a high level of
sound. This is most applicable for rooms with good acoustics
2. Low-level system
- consists of several loudspeaker placed at strategic locations
in the room and operating at low volume of sound. This is
most useful for rooms with bad acoustic like churches and
cathedrals
If the high level system is used in a room with a flat or level
floor, it is good practice to place the loudspeaker above the head of
the main speaking and direct it towards the center of the audience

PROPAGATION OF NOISE OUTDOORS

Defenses against noise in the open air:
1. to increase the distance between the source of noise and the
room to be protected
2. to put a screen or obstacles between the source and the
room
3. to design or position the room to resist the noise

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROPAGATION OF NOISE

1. distance
the farther from the source the lesser is the intensity
of noise
2. molecular absorption of sound by air
high frequency sounds are absorbed more by air
than the low frequency sounds
3. wind gradient
refers to the differences in the velocity of air in
terms of distance from the ground and generally
near the ground is slower than that farther above
this effects the propagation of sound

If the loudspeaker will be placed behind the speaker, the

mans voice will be heard seconds before that, that came from the
loudspeaker
PRINCIPLES OF SOUND INSULATION AND NOISE CONTROL
Definitions
1. noise an unwanted sound
2. sound insulation a process or method of making a room
invulnerable against the entry of noise
3. noise control process of elimination or limiting the
propagation of noise

4. temperature gradient
refers to the differences in the temperature of air

with respect to the distance from the ground, it is

higher than in the upper layers. The reverse is true
at nighttime. At night the air near the surface of the
earth is cooler

5. any absorption such as a wall, will reduce the propagation of

sound outdoors as long as the length of the wall and its
width should be more than the wavelength of the sound

6. sound absorbent materials may effectively reduce the effect

of the reflected sound outdoors
7. if the source of the noise and its receiver are all above the
ground. The noise may increase due to the reflection from
the ground

SOURCE OF NOISE INDOORS

1. like all types of sound, the noise in a room is made up of
two parts: the direct sound and the reverberant sound.
The direct sound decreases in intensity as the distance
increases, whereas the reverberant sound is uniform more
or less throughout the room, especially if the room is small
and square.

If the designers interest is to prevent the

transmission of sound to an adjacent room, then it is usually
the reverberant sound that is to be controlled. If the interest
is merely on the effect of sound inside the room, then it is
the direct sound that is primarily to be controlled.
2. nothing that is done to the room can alter the direct sound.
3. the use of screen may also help in reducing the effect of the
direct sound especially if the sound is directional. The usual
practice is to put sound absorbent materials at the side of
the screen facing the sound source. The screen absorbs the
sound and if the dimension of the screen is large compared
to the wavelength of the sound, the person behind the
screen cannot hear the sound. As for the reverberant
sounds, the use of sound absorbent materials in the room
will somehow reduce its intensity.

4. in long and low ceiling rooms, the reverberant sound will not
be uniform anymore. In some parts of the room, the
reverberant sound is louder than in the other parts. The
direct sound falls off with increase in distance. This is
practical in factories where noisy processes may be placed in
one end of the room.
SOUND INSULATION
Refers to treating a room acoustically so that the sound
coming from it will not be transmitted to the adjacent rooms
2 TYPES OF SOUND INSULATION
1. air borne sound insulation
- insulation against noise is originating in the air. Ex. voices
2. impact sound insulation
- insulation against impact noises. Ex. footsteps and falling
objects

TRANSMISSION OF NOISE IN AND OUT OF THE BUILDING

Noise from outside to inside via an opening
At concessions inside the building but close to the opening,
the noise level is almost the same as if there were no building at all.
Noise level farther away from the opening depends on the area of
the opening in relation to the area of sound absorbent materials the
smaller the opening and the greater the area of the sound
absorbents, the lesser is the noise level.
NOISE FROM INSIDE TO OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING
With openings, the noise level just outside the opening is the
same as the reverberant sound level of the room, farther away, the
noise level depends on the area of the openings and the distance
from it.
VIBRATIION CONTROL
VIBRATION
To and from movement of the structure
Some ways to reduce vibration
1. confine the building within its own
2. create a structurally massive foundation
3. use resiliency principle of wright
VIBRATION PRINCIPLE
The more massive the building, the less the vibration
Light frame construction (steel, wood, etc.) can transmit
sound as well as vibration
RESILIENCY PRINCIPLE
A greater resistance to vibration includes a greater damage,
therefore the structure should go with the vibration, like in Frank
Llyod Wrights Imperial Hotel, it survived the earthquake.

LIGHTING AND ILLUMINATION

Functions of lighting
1. to afford visibility of objects
2. to secure pleasing and decorative effects

1.
2.
3.

Factors to consider in lighting system

the method that they are used
the properties and capabilities of various equipment
the effect of the lighting system on the space where it is
used as well as on the occupants

Like acoustics, lighting should be incorporated into the

design of the building
Light may either be:
a. natural daylight
b. artificial
1. incandescent
- stimulating effect, conducive to drinking, induces
sleep. Best for bars and nightclubs
2. fluorescent
- emits a light similar to daylight, conducive to
eating, reading, studying, etc.
3. mercury
4. neon
A good architect should use the daylight or natural lighting,
as this is the cheapest kind of light.
THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Definition of terms
1. photometry
- the science that deals with the measurement of light
2. candle power
- refers to the unit of intensity of light of one standard
candle whose light is concentrated at a point and the light
source is assumed to be placed at the center of a hollow
sphere of one foot radius
the illumination at any point on the sphere is one
foot candle (abbreviated ft-s), the unit for the power or
intensity of light.
3. standard candle
-is the brightness of a black body at the temperature of
freezing platinum
4. lumen (abbreviated L)
-is the unit of luminous flux, amount f light falling on a
surface from the source
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LUMEN AND FOOT CANDLE OR
CANDLE POWER
When 1 lumen of flux is uniformly distributed over 1 square
foot of area, the illumination at any point on the area is one-foot
candle.
FORMULA FOR ILLUMINATION
Illumination (E) = I / D2
Where:
I = the candle power of the source
D=the distance from the source in feet
For example:
What is the illumination on a surface which is 12 ft
from a lamp of 80 candle power (cp)?
Answer:
E= I / D2

E= 80cp / (12ft)2
= 5 / 9 ft-c or 0.555 ft-c

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT

1. diffusion
-light rays leaving the source strike a rough, opaque surface
which spreads the light in various directions
-in addition, light is broken up while in reflection, the light
bounces back at a different direction
2. polarization
-light ray striking a polarized glass causes the illumination of
the horizontal light rays and allows the vertical rays to
penetrate the glass (resulting in soft lighting)
3. transmission
-light rays strike a plain (surface) transparent glass which
allows the rays to proceed farther
4. reflection
-light striking a silvered surface is reflected back with no
diffusion and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
deflection
5. refraction
-light rays striking a clear glass placed at an angle with
respect to the rays are reflected at an angle within the glass
and continues at another angle on the far side of the glass
CANDLE POWER DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Is a graphic representation of the distribution of light
intensity of a luminaries (container of a source light)
Those at the center of the sphere receives more light than at
the edges
Each kind of light will have its own distribution curve