Natural Number

1.0
Introduction
Numbers, like many other things, can be described or classified in a variety of ways.
It is not unusual to classify an item in a certain category and then later reclassify it
differently to describe it better.
If a person is holding a playing card from a standard deck of cards, we dont know
much about the card: It is one of 52 possibilities. If the person tells us that it is a
heart, then we know that it is one of 13 possibilities. If we are told that it is also a
picture card, then we know it is one of three possibilities king, queen, or jack of
hearts. Finally, the person may identify it completely by telling us that the card is the
king of hearts.
Once an item has been placed in a general category, we can better describe it by
placing it in more specific categories. This can also be done with numbers. That is,
numbers can be classified in various ways. A cardinal number for example, 1,2, 10,
or 2001 tells us how many. An ordinal number refers to order- for example, first,
second, 14th, and 123rd are ordinal numbers.
Your phone number, student number, and Identification Card number are neither
cardinal nor ordinal numbers: They are used strictly for identification purposes.
2.0

Natural Number

When human beings, first started to count they did not begin with zero. They began
with 1 and then one more, 2, and proceeded in a like manner. They counted in this
manner:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
In other words, they began with 1 and continued to count. The set of numbers
{1,2,3,4,} is often referred to as the set of counting numbers. More formally, it is
called the set of natural numbers. The first natural number is 1, sometimes called the
unit number.
6 = 3 2,

8 = 4 2,

3 = 3 1, and 1 = 1 1.

The numbers that are multiplied together to form a number are the factors of the
number. Since 6 = 3 2, 3 and 2 are factors of 6..They are also called divisors of 6. A
factor or divisor of a number divides the given number with a zero remainder. Every
natural number is divisible by itself and 1. certain natural numbers are divisible only
by themselves and 1. These natural numbers are called prime numbers.
2.1

Prime Number

A prime number is any number greater than 1 that is divisible only by itself and 1.
A prime number cannot be written as the product of natural numbers that are less
than itself. A prime number has exactly two factors, 1 and the number itself.

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The numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are the first five prime numbers. Note that 1 is not a
prime number. The first prime number, 2, is unique in that it is the only even prime
number. Any other even natural number such as 10, 200, or 484 is divisible by 2 and
therefore cannot be prime because a prime number is divisible only by it self and 1. if
a natural number greater that 2 is not prime, then it is called a compositie number
because it is composed of other factors. A composite number can be written as the
product of natural numbers that are less than itself.
Any composite number can be expressed as a product of prime factors. For example,
6 = 2 3, 12 = 2 2 3, and 4 = 2 2. in fact, if we disregard order, every
composite natural number can be expressed as a product of prime factors in one and
only one way. (6 = 2 3 and 6 = 3 2, but these are the same if we disregard order.)
if we phrase this statement more formally, we have
Every natural number greater than 1 is either a prime or can be expressed as a
product of prime factors. Except for the order of the factors, this can be done in one
and only one way.
This statement is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Because every natural
number except 1 is either a prime number or can be expressed as a product of primes,
the concept of a prime number is an important one.
How can we tell if a number is prime? There is no quick and easy solution; no
formula exists for finding primes. Suppose we want to determine whether 29 is
prime. How do we go about it? In order to determine whether a number is prime. We
check divisors to see if they divide it. The first divisor to check is 2: 29 is not
divisible by 2. Try 3: 29 is not divisible by 3. How about 4? We need not test 4
because it is a composite number (4 = 2 2) and contains smaller divisors (2) which
have already been tried. Next we try 5: 29 is not divisible by 5. We do not need to
test 6. Why? Because 6 = 3 2 and neither 3 nor 2 divide 29. Try 7: 29 is not
divisible by 7. How far do we keep testing? All the way to 29? No; in fact, we should
have stopped at 6, because 6 6 = 36 and 36 > 29. If 6 or a number greater than 6
divided 29, then the quotient would be less than 6 and would also be a factor of 29.
But we have already tested all possible factors less than 6, and they all failed.
Therefore, our conclusion is that 29 is prime.
To determine whether a number is prime, we need to test only the prime divisors {2,
3, 5, 7, 11, } up to the largest natural number whose square is less than or equal to
the number we are testing.
Remember that we do not have to check composite divisors, because a composite
number can be expressed as a product of prime factors.
Example :
Is 43 a prime number?
Solution: Yes, 43 is not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7. We need not check any other
divisors, since 72 = 49 and 49 > 43.

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The following is a list of rules for divisibility by certain numbers. These rules my aid
you in determining whether a given number is prime, or in finding the prime factors
of a number.
1. A natural number is divisible by 2, if the natural number is an even number.
2754 2
2. A natural number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3.
27543
3. A natural number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by its last two digits
is divisible by 4.
29244
4. A natural number is divisible by 5 if the last digit on the right is 0 or 5.
2347955 13505
5. A natural number is divisible by 7 if the number minus the last digit of the
number multiple by 2 and 10 if and only if divisible by 7.
7217=103
721-20=7007=100 (divisible by 7 then 721 is divisible by 7.
6. A natural number is divisible by 8 if the number formed by the last three
digits is divisible by 8.
45608
7. A natural number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
27549
8. A natural number is divisible by 10 if the last digit is 0.
135010
40870010
9. A natural number is divisible by 11 if the difference between the sum of the
digits in the odd places and the sum of the digits in the even places is 0 or
divisible by 11.
36861011
Divisibility Test:
Divisible by
2
3
4
5

Test
Numbers ends in 0, 2, 4, 6
or 8 (the last digit is even).
Sum of the digits is
divisble by 3.
Last two digits form a
number divisible by 4.
Number ends in 0 and 5.

Number is divisible by
both 2 and 3.

you double the last digit

and subtract it from the
rest of the number and the
answer is: 0, or divisible
by 7.
Last three digits form a
number divisible by 8.
Sum of the digits is

8
9

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Example
9,489,994 ends in 4; it is
divisible by 2.
897,432 is divisible by 3,
since 8 + 9 + 7 + 4 + 3 + 2
= 33 is divisible by 3.
7,693,432 is divisible by 4,
since 32 is divisible by 4.
890 and 7635 are divisible
by 5.
27,342 is divisible by 6
since it is divisible by both
2 and 3.
672 (Double 2 is 4, 674=63, and 637=9).

1,437,816 is divisible by 8,
since 816 is divisible by 8.
428,376,105 is divisible by

divisible by 9.
10

The last digit is 0.

11

Sum of every second digit

and then subtract all other
digits and the answer is:
0, or divisible by 11.
Number is divisible by
both 4 and 3.
Add four times the last
digit to the remaining
leading truncated number.
If the result is divisible by
13.

12
13

17

19

23

29

31

37

41

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Subtract five times the last

digit from the remaining
leading truncated number.
If the result is divisible by
17.
Add two times the last
digit to the remaining
leading truncated number.
If the result is divisible by
19.

9 since sum of the digits is

36, which is divisible by 9.
897,463,940 is divisible by
10.
1364 ((3+4) - (1+6) = 0).
3729 ((7+9) - (3+2) = 11).
376,984,032 is divisible by
12.
50661,
5066+41=5070,
507+0=507,
50+28=78 and 78 is 613,
so 50661 is divisible by
13.
3978,
397-58=357,
35-57=0.
So 3978 is divisible by 17.

101156
10115+26=10127,
1012+27=1026,
102+26=114 and
114=619.
So 101156 is divisible by
19.
Add seven times the last
17043
digit to the remaining
1704+73=1725,
leading truncated number. 172+75=207,
If the result is divisible by 20+77=69 which is 3*23,
23.
so 17043 is also divisible
by 23.
Add three times the last
15689
digit to the remaining
1568+39=1595,
leading truncated number. 159+35=174,
If the result is divisible by 17+34=29, so 15689 is
29.
also divisible by 29.
Subtract three times the
7998
last digit from the
799-38=775
remaining leading
77-35=62 which is twice
truncated number. If the
31, so 7998 is also
result is divisible by 31.
divisible by 31.
Subtract eleven times the
23384
last digit from the
2338-114=2294
remaining leading
229-114=185 which is
truncated number. If the
five times 37, so 23384 is
result is divisible by 37.
also divisible by 37.
Subtract four times the last 30873

digit from the remaining

leading truncated number.
If the result is divisible by
41.

3087-43=3075,
307-45=287,
28-47=0, remainder is
zero and so 30873 is also
divisible by 41.
Add thirteen times the last 3182
digit to the remaining
318+132=344
leading truncated number. 34+134=86 which is
If the result is divisible by recognizably twice 43, and
43.
so 3182 is also divisible by
43.
Subtract fourteen times the 34827
last digit from the
3482-147=3384
remaining leading
338-144=282
truncated number.
28-142=0, remainder is
zero and so 34827 is
divisible by 47.

43

47

There exists an interesting and ancient technique for finding primes. It is called the
sieve of Eratosthenes and was invented by a Greek scholar. Eratosthenes (276 194
B.C.), who was also head of the famous library in Alexandria. We shall use the
numbers from 1 to 100 to illustrate Eratosthenes method:
1
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
91

2
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
92

3
13
23
33
43
53
63
73
83
93

4
14
24
34
44
54
64
74
84
94

5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95

6
16
26
36
46
56
66
76
86
96

7
17
27
37
47
57
67
77
87
97

8
18
28
38
48
58
68
78
88
98

9
19
29
39
49
59
69
79
89
99

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

We exclude 1 because 1 is not prime. Eratosthenes determined that 2 is prime, and

also that every second number (beginning with 2) is not prime because it has 2 as a
factor. Therefore, we cross out 4, 6, 8, 10, . Similarly, 3 is a prime number, and
every third number (beginning with 3) is not prime because is has 3 as a factor.
Therefore, we cross out 6, 9, 12, . Note that some of these numbers, such as 6, 12,
and 18, have already been crossed out. The next number to consider is 5; it is prime,
so we cross out every fifth number.
We can continue this process, but for how long? We do not have to go past 11, since
112 = 121 and 121 > 100. In fact, after determining that 7 is prime and crossing out
every seventh number, we have a list of all the prime numbers less than 100. This
process is called the sieve of Eratosthenes because instead of crossing out the
numbers he punched them out with a sharp stick to form a sieve.

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Because every natural number (except 1) is either a prime number or a composite

number; the concept of a prime number is an important one. If a number is not prime,
then it is composite. A composite number can be expressed as a product of its prime
factors in one and only one way, disregarding order. Is 60 prime? No, it is a
composite number. What are its prime factors? To determine the prime factors of 60
in a systematic manner, we first try 2: 2 is a factor of 60 because 60 = 2 30. Next
we try to factor 30, and 2 is a factor of 30: 30 = 2 15. we now have 60 = 2 2 5.
A factor tree can be used to express a composite number as a product of primes. The
factor tree that follow illustrates the factoring process we worked through for 60:
60
2
2

30

15

2 2
3
5
Write each composite number as a product of natural numbers. When a prime is determinated, bring it down to the next line so it does not get lost.
60 = 2 2 3 5
Another way to determine the prime factors of 60 is by successive divisions by prime
divisors. In order to use the technique of successive divisions, we first determine the
smallest prime that will divide into 60, which is 2. We divide 2 into 60 and continue
in this manner until we reach a quotient that is prime. This indicates that no more
divisions are necessary. This technique is illustrated as follow:
2|60
2|30
3|15
5
Because 5 is a prime, no more divisions are necessary. Therefore,
60 = 2 2 3 5.
Note that we could also express this as 60 = 2 3 5 2. This is not a different
factorization, but merely a rearrangement of the original one. A composite number
can be expressed as a product of its prime factors in one and only one way,
disregarding order.
Example:
Determine the prime factors of 4,830.
Solution:
2|4,830

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3|2,415
5|805
7|161
23.
** In the 1970s, three mathematicians, Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard
Alderman, developed a public key cryptographic system known as RSA. The success
of their system relies on the difficulty of factoring large composite numbers (that is,
numbers with more than two hundred digits). The essence of the system is first to
find two large prime numbers; these are used to code the message and eventually to
decode it. To protect your message you multiply the two prime numbers together.
You could publish the composite number if you wish without significantly risking
security. In order for someone to decrypt your message, they will need knowledge of
the prime numbers, but a two hundred digit numbers will take at least several
thousand years to factor. So you can rest assured that your message will be kept safe.
2.1.1

Infinitude of Primes
One important basic result by Euclid is infinitely many primes. This means
that no matter how large a prime we identify, there are always others even
larger. Eulicds proof remains today as one of the most elegant proofs in all of
mathematics.
Proof by contradiction:
We assume that the negation of the statement is true. The assumption that the
negation is true is used to produce some sort of contradiction, or absurdity.
The fact that the negation of the original statement leads to a contradiction
means that the original statement must be true.
In order to better understand a particular part of the proof that there are
infinitely many primes:
Suppose that M = 2 3 5 7 + 1 = 211. Now M is the product of the first four
prime numbers, plus 1. If we divide 211 by each of the primes 2, 3, 5 and 7,
the remainder is always 1. so 211 is not divisible by any of the primes 2, 3, 5,
and 7.
Now we are ready to prove that there are infinitely many primes. If it can be
shown that there is no largest prime number, then there must be infinitely
many primes.
Theorem:
Statement: There is no largest prime number.
Proof: Suppose that there is a largest prime number and call it P. Now form
the number M such that
M = p1p2p3P+1,
Where p1p2p3P represent all the primes less than or equal to P. Now the
number M must be either prime or composite.
1. Suppose that M is prime.
M is obviously larger than P, so if M is prime, it is larger than the
assumed largest prime P. we have reached a contradiction.

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2. Suppose that M is composte.

If M is composite, it must have a prime factor. But none of p1p2p3P are
factors of M, because division by each will leave a remainder of 1. So if
M has a prime factor, it must be greater than P. But this is a contradiction,
because P is the assumed largest prime.
2.1.2
2.1.3

Mersene Prime
As mathematicians continue to search for larger and larger primes, a formula
for generating all the primes would be nice. Numbers generated by the
formula Mn = 2n -1 are called Mersene Prime (French Monk Marin Mersene,
1588-1648).
Example:
Mersene Prime for n = 2, 3, and 5.
M2 = 22 1 = 3
M3 = 23 1 = 7
M5 = 25 1 = 31
Unluckily, M11 = 211 1 = 2047 is not prime number.
Theorem:
For n = 1, 2, 3, , the Mersenne numbers are those generated by the formula
Mn = 2n -1.
1. If n is composite, then Mn is also composite.
2. If n is prime, then Mn may be be either prime or composite.
The prime values of Mn are called the Mersenne Primes. Large primes being
verify currently are commonly Mersenne Primes.
Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS):

2.1.4

M30,402,457 = 230,402,457 1 = 9,152,052.

Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665)
Fermat conjectured a formula,
n
22 1 ,
would always produce a prime, for any whole number value of n.
n
0
1
2
3

2n
1
2
4
8

22
2
4
16
256

22 1
3
5
17
257

Unluckily, n = 5, 2 2 1 = 4,294,967,297 is not a prime number.

Fermats Last Theorem
In any right triangle with shorter sides a and b, and c, the equation
a 2 b 2 c 2 will hold true. This is the famous Pythagorean theorem.

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One of the theorems legitimately proved by Fermat is as follows:

Every odd prime can be expressed as the difference of two squares in one and
only one way.
Fermats Last Theorem (Proved in the 1990s)
For any natural number n 3, there no triples (a, b, c) that satisfy the
equation
an bn cn ,
2.1.5

Leonard Euler
Euler offered formula,
n 2 n 41 ,

which generates primes for n up to 40 and fails at n = 41.

2.1.6

Escott (1879)
Escott produce formula,
But fails at n = 80.

2.2

n 2 79n 1601 ,

Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)

Now that we are able to determine the prime factors of a given natural
number, we shall use this process in determining some other properties of natural
numbers. One important concept we will need is that of the greatest common divisor.
The greatest common divisor (GCD) of two natural numbers is the greatest natural
number that divides a given pair of natural numbers with reminders of zero.
It should be noted here that the greatest common divisor is also called the greates
common factor (GCF) and either of these two names may be used.
Consider the two natural numbers 32 and 40. we list the set of divisors of each
number:
32 : {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32}
40 : {1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40}
If we find the intersection of these two sets of divisors,
{1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32} {1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40}
We have {1, 2, 4, 8}. As 8 is the greatest number in the intersection, it is the greatest
common divisor of 32 and 40.
When we are given two prime numbers, then their greatest common divisor is 1. But
there are also pairs of composite numbers whose greatest common divisor is 1.
Consider the two natural numbers 24 and 25. The set of divisors of these numbers are

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24 : {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}

25 : {1, 5, 25}
The intersection of these two sets of divisors is
{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} {1, 5, 25} = {1}
Therefore 1 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 25. Two numbers whose GCD
is 1 are said to be relatively prime.
Do we always have to list the sets of divisors to determine the greatest common
divisors? The answer is no. We can do it in a more efficient manner. Lets consider
32 and 40 again, and find the prime factors of each number:
2|32
2|40
2|16
2|20
2|8
2|10
2|4
5
2
32 = 2 2 2 2 2
40 = 2 2 2 5
Now examine the two sets of prime factors and determine the factors common to
both sets.
32 = 2 2 2 2 2
40 = 2 2 2 5
Note that both sets of prime divisors contain 2 2 2. Therefore the greatest
common divisor of 32 and 40 is 2 2 2 or 8.
Lets try another example. What is the greatest common divisor of 30 and 45?
First we find the prime factors of each:
2|30
3|15
5
30 = 2 3 5

3|45
3|15
5
45 = 3 3 5

Examining the two sets of prime factors, we see that the intersection is 3 5.
Therefore, the greatest common divisor of 30 and 45 is 3 5 or 15.
Example:
Find the greatest common divisor of 8 and 12.
Solution:
First we find the prime factors of 8 and 12.
2|8
2|4
2
8=222

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2|12
2|6
3
12 = 2 2 3

10

Note that the two sets of prime factors have no elements in common; their
intersection is empty. When this occurs, the GCD for the two numbers is 1, so the
numbers are relatively prime. Note that we did not list 1 as a prime factor for either
number because 1 is not a prime number.
One application of the greatest common divisor is in the reduction of fractions. We
can simplify, or reduce, fractions if we determine the greatest common divisor of
both the numerator and denominator. Suppose we are asked to reduce the fraction
65
91

We can do this in the following manner. We find the greatest common divisor of both
the numerator and denominator; that is, we find the GCD of 65 and 91:
5|65
13
65 = 5 13

7|91
13
91 = 7 13

The GCD of 65 and 91 is 13. We now rewrite the original fraction:

65 13 5 5

91 13 7 7

The numerator and denominator of the reduced fraction are relatively prime; that is,
their GCD is 1.
Example:
Reduce

130
to lowest terms.
455

Solution:
We first find the GCD of 130 and 455.
2|130
5|455
2|65
7|91
13
13
130 = 2 5 13
455 = 5 7 13
The GCD of 130 and 455 is 5 13. Now we rewrite the original fraction.
130 5 13 2 2

455 5 13 7 7

2.3

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The least common multiple can also be thought of as the smallest (least)
natural number that is divisible by both of the given numbers. Four is multiple of 2 as
are 6, 8, 10, and so on, because each of these numbers has 2 as a factor. The
multiples of 3 are {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, }. Listing the sets of multiples for 2 and 3, we
have

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11

2 : {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, }
3 : {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, }
Upon inspection, we note that 6 is the least common multiple. Also it is the smallest
number that is divisible by both of the given numbers 2 and 3.

Lets consider another example, the LCM of 10 and 12. Listing the sets of multiplies
for 10 and 12, we have
10 : {10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, }
12 : {12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, }
Inspection of these two sets of multiplies indicates that 60 is the least common
multiple of 10 and 12. It is the smallest number that is divisible by both of the given
numbers, 10 and 12.
Example:
Find the least common multiple of 8 and 12.
Solution:
Multiplies of 8 : {8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, }
Multiplies of 12 : {12, 24, 36, 48, 60, }
The common multiplies include 24 and 48. The least common multiple of 8 and 12 is
24.
2.4

Goldbachs Conjecture

It has been stated that every even number greater than 2 can be expressed as the
sum of two prime numbers.
Example:
6=3+3
8=3+5
12 = 7 + 5
14 = 11 + 3

This statement is called Goldbachs Conjecture. It is a conjecture because it has

never been proved. Show that Goldbachs conjecture is true for all even numbers
except 2, up to and including 30.
**Any number greater or equal to 7 can expressed as the sum of 3 prime numbers.

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12