MI The Golden Ratio Spiral Do nat laugh at notations: ircent them, Hoey ore poierful. bn fet, mathematics is, toa large extent, incention of better notations. — Richard Feynman CHAPTER 1 Pats in a Name? Each of these images helps tell a story. Throughout this book we'll share these stories with you, but before we tell these stories, we have to name our characters,CHAPTER 1. WHAT'S IN A NAME? 1.1 Why Names and Symbols? To convince you that names and symbols are useful, we'll start at the end of the book instead of the beginaing. Here's the final example problem in this book, written without any special symbols or names. Draw three points and connect each to the other two with straight paths. Also, draw the circle that passes through all three of these points. Then, draw a line through one of those three points such that the line goes inside the region you just formed and is equally close to the two other straight paths you formed initially through this point. Draw the circle that goes through the one of your three first points you just drew a line through, through the point where this line hits the straight path that connects the other two of your first three points, and through the point that is half-way between these two other points. Consider the two paths from the point we drew the extra line through to the other two of our first three points. These paths hit our second circle before they hit these other two points. ‘Show that the distance from where the circle hits these paths to the points where these paths end is the same for both paths. If you can make much sense of this problem, you're a much more careful reader than Lam! We need some special names and symbols so we can communicate mathematical ideas more simply. 1.2 Points, Lines, and Planes Pe Figure 1.1: A Poi A dot. A speck. In geometry, it’s a point. if you lived on a point, you'd be awfully bored. There would be no up and down, no right and left. You couldn’t move any amount in any direction. Since you can’t move on your point in any direction, we say'a point has 0’ dimensions. In order to tell one point from another, we usually label them with capital letters, such as point P above. A Figure 1.2: A Segment Now, say you got so bored on one point that you just had to ge to another point, If there were a straight path from one point to another, that path would be called a line segment, or just a segment. ‘The two points at the ends of a segment are cleverly called the endpoints of the segment. We use these endpoints to label the segment. For example, AB is the segment from A to B. To denote the length of the segment, we omit the bar. For example, AB equals 1.5 inches in Figure 1.2. 21.2. POINTS, LINES, AND PLANES. Figure 1.3: A Midpoint and Marking Segments of Equal Length ‘The endpoints aren’t the only points on a segment. There are infinitely many points, since between any two points on the segment, we can find another point. One special point on a segment is the segment’s midpoint, which is the point haliway between the endpoints. Because the midpoint is the same distance from both endpoints, we say it is equidistant from the endpoints. In Figure 1.3, M is the midpoint of XY. We show that XM = MY in the diagram with the little tick marks along XM and MY. If we have multiple sets of equally long segments, we use a different number of tick marks for each. For exemple, our diagram above indicates that ZX = WY, and that these lengths need not be the same as XM and MY. a + ao Figure 14: A Ray If you're not happy just going from A to B, you can keep going past point B. If you keep going, forever, you will make a ray. We refer to the ray in Figure 14 as AB, where the starting point, or origin, of the ray comes first. In the diagram, the littie arrow indicates that the ray continues forever in that direction. Figure 1.5: A Line ‘As you might guess, we could continue forever in both directions. The result is a line. Line 4B is shown in Figure 1.5. We sometimes use a lowercase letter to describe a line, such as line in the figure. ‘We often leave off the little arrows in the diagrams. Extra! [The universe] cannot be rend until we have learnt the language and become familiar with the teem characters in which it is written. If is written ir mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Galileo GalileiCHAPTER 1. WHAT'S IN A NAME? SS \ Figure 16: Three Collinear Points Figure 1.7: Three Concurrent Lines If three or more points are all on the same line, we say the points are collinear, and if three or more lines all pass through the same point, we say the lines are concurrent. Segments, rays, and lines are all one-dimensional figures, since you have only one way you canmove along them. Roughly speaking, any path you can draw with a pencil is one-dimensional, meaning you can either move ‘forward’ on the path or ‘backward’ on the path. Once we have the freedom to go off our path and move around on a surface, we're up to two dimensions. On a surface like this page, we might call our dimensions left-right and up-down. If the page extended forever in every direction, we'd call ita plane. Most of this book discusses planar figures, which are figures that exist in planes. However, in Chapter 14, we wander off the page and add a third dimension you might think of as ‘above-below.’ The physical space we live in is effectively three-dimensional, and most of what we experience is three-dimensional. Although it’s much harder to think about, there’s a great deal of math in higher dimensions. But that’s story for another day. =~ 1.21 Alice is thinking of a line. How many points on that line does she need to show Bob in order for Bob to know exactly which line she is thinking about? 1.2.2. Mis the midpoint of AB and N is the midpoint of BM. If BN = 4, then what is AB? 123 P,Q R,S,and Tare on line k such that Qis the midpoint of PT, R is the midpoint of QT, and $ is the midpoint of RT. If PS =9, then what is PT? 1.24% Points A, B,C, D, and E are five points on a line segment with endpoints A and E. The points are in the order listed above from left to right such that CD = AB/2, BC = CD/2, AB = AE/2, and AE = 12. What is the length of AD? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 203 tROUND AND ROUND. 1.3 Round and Round xa > Problem 14; Mark a point on a piece of a paper and Jabel it O, Use a ruler to find points on your| paper that are 1 inch away from the point O. If you draw all of these points, what figure would you create? Problem 1.2; The figure shown at right is called a circle, {a) Is it possible to draw a line that does not hit the circle in any points? (b) Isit possible to draw a line that hits the circle in exactly one point? (c) Two points? (@) Three or more points? We have many fancy names for things in mathematics. The fancy name we have for a group of points that satisfy certain conditions is a locus. While you may never have heard of that word, you've certainly heard of the first locus we'll investigate, (And it's no big deal if you forget the word ‘locus’ until Intermediate Geometry!) Problem 1.4: Mark a point on a piece of a paper and label it O. Use a ruler to find points on your paper that are 1 inch away from the point O. If you draw all of these points, what figure would you create? Solution for Problem 1.1: When we draw all the points that are 1 inch A away from O, we form a figure called a circle. The point O is called the center of the circle. We often refer to a circle by its center, writing ‘circle O' or ‘00', where the © symbol tells us that we're dealing with a circle. We say that OA is a radius of the circle because it is a segment connecting the center to a point on the circle. We know that all points oO. on the circle must be 1 inch, from the centet, so OA = 1 inch. The term ‘radius’ is also used to mean the length of a radius, so we could write: “The radius of OO is 1 inch.’ You'll notice that we didn’t use a big dot to mark point A. When there's a label near where two figures meet, the label refers to the point where they meet. Therefore, A is the point where our radius hits the circle. 0 ‘Much of our work in this book involves both lines and circles. and a circle intersect in 0 points? 1 point? 2 points? 3 points? More? Solution for Problem 1.2: Given OX, we can clearly find a line that doesn’t hit X anywhere. Line k shown. below is such a line. Imagine sliding line k closer and closer to @X until it touches the circle at exactlyCHAPTER 1. WHAT'S IN A NAME? one point, such as line ¢ touches OX at point P, We say that line fis a tangent line to the circle. We can also use ‘tangent’ as a adjective, and write, ‘Line ¢ is tangent to OX." Lines even closer to the center intersect the circle at two points, such as MN does. A line that hits a circle at two points is a secant line. A segment that connects two points on a circle is a chord. MN is a chord, while MN is a secant line, A chord that passes through the center of a circle is a diameter. Finally, the portion of a circle that connects two points on a circle is called an arc of that circle. Of course, we have a symbol for that too; MN is the shorter of the two arcs that connect M and N. We call the shorter of the two arcs that connect two points on a circle a minor arc of the circle. The longer arc that connects the two points is a major arc of the circle. We usually use three points to denote a major are: PNM is the longer arc connecting P to M, while PM is the smaller arc connecting them. 0 aa 13.1 _ In the figure at right, identify whether each of the following is a secant line, a chord, a radius, 2 diameter, or a tangent line of 0. (If multiple terms are accurate, list all of the accurate terms.) (a) ) () CD (d) AB © @ 13.2 Suppose point P is outside 2 given circle. Is it always possible to draw a line through P that is tangent to the circle? (No proof is necessary now; you'll have the tools to prove your answer later in the text.) | S| 13.3. Whatis the maximum number of possible points of intersection of a circle anda triangle? (Source: AMC 10) (A triangle is formed by connecting three points with line segments.) 13.44 ‘Two circles and three straight lines lie in the same plane. If neither the circles nor the lines are coincident (meaning the two circles are different and the three lines are all different lines), what is1.4. CONSTRUCTION: GOPY A SEGMENT the maximum possible number of points at which at least two of the five figures intersect? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 374 14 Construction: Copy a Segment Classical construction problems are sprinkled throughout the book because a deep understanding of constructions usually leads to a deep understanding of geometry. Construction problems ask us to create precise geometric diagrams with two simple tools. These tools are a compass, to make circles, ard a straightedge, to make straight line segments. Notice that we don’t say ‘ruler’ to make line segments. You don’t get to use your straightedge to measure lengths of segments - you can only draw lines. Similarly, you aren't allowed to use your protractor to measure or create angles. So, what can you do? That's the goal of these construction sections: to start learning what you can do with only compass and straightedge. The only operations you can perform with your compass and straightedge are the followin; 1. Givena point, you can draw any line through the point. 2. Given two points, you can draw the line that passes through them both. 3. Given a point, you can draw any circle centered at that point 4, Given a point and a segment, you can draw the circle with its center at that point and with radius equal in length to the length of the segment 5. Given two points, you car draw the cizcle through one point such that the other point is the center of the circle. That's not much, but with these simple operations we can construct an enormous range of diagrams. 1.4.1 Given the segments shown, construct segments with the following FE lengths D (@) AB+CD~EF. (&) 248. c (©) AB-2EF +3CD. ECHAPTER 1. WHAT'S IN A NAME? Se 15 The Burden of Proof Earlier we defined a line segment as the direct path that connects two points. It seems obvious that any two points can be connected by a segment. In fact, it seems so obvious that it should be easy to prove. However, it isn’t just hard to prove ~ it's impossible. The statement that any two points can be connected by a straight line segment must be simply accepted as a fact. We call such a statement that must be regarded as fact without proof an axiom. Axioms are also sometimes called postulates. When the world’s most famous geometer, Euclid, wrote his famous Elements, he stated five axioms: 1. Any two points can be connected by a straight line segment. 2. Any line segment can be extended forever in both directions, forming a line. 3. Given any line segment, we can draw a circle with the segment asa radius and one of the segment’ endpoints as center, 4, All right angles are congruent. (We'll alk about right angles and what we mean by ‘congruent’ shortly!) 5. Given any straight line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one straight line that passes through the point and never meets the first line. In Euclid’s Elements, he combined these axioms to prove ever more complicated mathematical statements. We call such proven mathematical statements theorems. A mathematical statement that is not an axiom but hasn’t been proved false or true is called a conjecture. Inthis book, we don’t start from Buclid’s axioms and prove everything that follows step-by-step. It's a good thing, too! It turns out that even Euclid missed a few axioms. Mathematicians since have shown that Euclid’s arguments, in order to be completely valid, would need many more axioms added to these five. In other words, there are some things that even the great Euclid didn’t realize are so ‘obvious’ that they could not be proved. Often when we reach these items in this text, we give a ‘common sense’ explanation of why we accept these statements as facts. We note when these really are axioms, as ‘opposed to statements that we can prove using previous axioms or theorems. You can use the proofs we present both as guides for writing your own proofs and as stepping stones to prove interesting theorems of your own. 1.6 Summary | Definitions: * A point is, well, a point. Euclid called a point ‘that which has no part.’ We can’t do much better than that vague description. We typically denote points with capital letters. ‘* Astraight path connecting two points is called a segment, and our original two points are the endpoints of the segment. We refer to a segment by its endpoints, such as AB. We remove the bar to denote the length of the segment: AB. 01.6. SUMMARY Definitions: ‘* The pointon a segment that is halfway between the endpoints is the midpoint of the segment, We also say that this point is equidistant from the endpoints. * If we start at a point, then head in one dlirection forever, we form a say. Our starting point is the vertex of the ray, and we denote a ray as AB, whete the first point is the vertex of the ray. If we continue a line segment past its endpoints forever in both directions, we form a line, which we write as AB. * If this page were continued forever in every direction, the result would be a plane. Since we can move in two general directions, such as rightleft and up-down, on a plane, we say the plane has two dimensions. ¢ If weadd a third dimension, we are in three-dimensional space. The set of all points that satisfy specific conditions is called a locus. Definitions: ‘« The set of all points that are the same distance from a given point is a circle. The given point is the center of the circle, and the fixed distance is the radius. We often refer to a circle by its center using the symbol ©, so 0 refers to a circle centered at O. * A line that touches a circle ata single point is tangent to the circle, while a line that hits a circle at two points is a secant line. A segment connecting two points on a circle is a chord, and a chord that passes through the center of its circle is a diameter. The portion of a circle that connects two points on the circle is an arc, which we denote with the endpoints of the arc: MIN is the shorter arc that connects M and N. When performing constructions with a straightedge and compass, you can only draw line segments and circular arcs. You cannot use a ruler to measure segments. The operations you can perform are: 1. Given a point, you can draw any line through the point. 2. Given two points, you can draw the Line that passes through them both. 3. Given a point, you can draw any circle centered at that point. 4, Given a point and a segment, you can draw the circle with its center at that point and with radius equal in length to the length of the segment. 5. Given two points, you can draw the circle through one point such that the other point is the center of the circle. Extral Logics the art of going wrong with confidence. mem Mortis Kline 77CHAPTER 1. WHAT'S IN A NAME? Extra?’ At the top of the first page of each chapter in this book is an image illustrating an svatutt interesting geometric fact. The image at the start of this chapter is of the Golden Ratio Spiral, A Golden Ratio Spiralis inside a golden rectangle, whichisa rectanglethatcanbe divided into a square and another rectangle such that the ratio between the dimensions of the new rectangle equals that of the original rectangle. 1 Px- A B 1 1 1 PD ar One Shown above is golden rectangle ABCD with dimensions 1 and x. PQ divides the rectangle into a square of side 1 anda rectangle with dimensions x ~ 1 and 1. Since the ratio of the dimensions of ABCD equals the ratio of the dimensions of BCQP, we have 1_x-1 ca ‘The positive value of x that satisfies this equation is i+v5 2 This number is the golden ratio (also sometimes called the golden mean), ard is often refered to by the Greek letier @ (‘phi’). When we divide a golden rectangle into a square and a rectangle, the ratio of the dimensions of thesmaller rectangleis thesame as that ofthe originalrectangle. Therefore, the smallerrectangle is a golden rectangle too, so wean splitit intoa square and another smaller golden rectangle. We can do this over and over indefinitely, formting the figure shown below. = 1.618034. LA All of the squares in the diagram together make up our largest golden rectangle. When we omit the largest square, we get our next golden rectangle. Then we amit the next largest square to find the next golden rectangle, and so on. If we then draw a quarter-circle in each of the squares, as shown above, we get the Golden Ratio Spiral. 12‘The Lighthouse Theorem We're going to ture this teaut around 360 degrees, — Jason Kiel CHAPTER rs | Pret 2.1 What is an Angle? When two rays share an origin, they form an angle. a In the diagram at left, rays OX and OY share origin O. We can refer to the angle they form as /XOY. The / symbol tells us we're referring to an angle. ‘The <5 common origin is called the vertex of the angle, and the rays OX and OY are ° Y called the sides of the angle. Notice that when we write the angle as Problem 2.1: Use your protractor to bind ZYOZ, ZOXD, ZDKE, and ZCXE, ¥ e D G. ° Zz x 142.2. MEASURING ANGLES Problem 2.2: The diagram below shows four common angles. In each case, point O is the center of| the circle. 2AOB cuts off 1/4 of a circle, 23.1 Find x, y, and zin the diagram below. nf Ty 2.3.2 Find the measure of an angle that is supplementary to each of the following angles: (a) Problem 2.11; Lines m and 7 are parallel, and we are given the measure lof one angle in the diagram as shown. Find the values of 1, 8, ¢, %, x, Y, and 2. Problem 2.42: In the figure, we have 48 || CD and AD || BC. We are also given the measures of four angles as shown in terms of x and y, Find xand y, Problem 213 Given that WV || YZ and WZ || VY in the diagram, find x.CHAPTER 2. ANGLES Problem 2.44: In the diagram, ¢|[7 and the angles are as marked. Find x. A : é 750° B > mn. a Back on page 10, we noted that one of our axioms (statements we must accept without proof) is Given any straight line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one straight line that passes through the point and never meets the first line This common-sense statement is sometimes called the Parallel Postulate. We'll start our exploration of parallel lines by taking a look at the angles formed when a line intersects a pair of parallel lines. Problem 2.10: Draw a pair of parallel lines, then draw aline thatcrosses both. <————> of the parallel lines. Measure all the angles formed between your line and both of the parallel lines. Write the angle measures in the angles you form. Try it fora second line (don’t worry about the angles where your two lines meet — just focus on the angles between the lines you draw and the parallel lines). Do you notice anything interesting? 6s Solution for Problem 2.10: In the diagram to the right, we have parallel n lines € and m, and we have added line 1, which meets € and i at H A and B, respectively. We call a line that cuts across parallel lines, & A a transversal. We measure HAG and find that it equals 40°. Since G HAG and ¢CAB are vertical angles, we don’t even have to measure 7 4CAB. We know that CAB = LHAG = 40°. Since HAG and ZBAG together make up a straight angle, we don’t have to measure 2BAG. We know that 2BAG = 180° — ZHAG = 180° — 40° = 140°. Similarly, LHAC = 140°. We might wonder if we need our protractor at all, but then we think about those angles around B. They sure look equal to those around A, and common sense tells us that they are, but we measure to make sure. We find that indeed ZABF = 40°, from which we deduce that DBE = 40° as well. We can also quickly determine that ZABD = 180° — ZABF = 140° and ZEBF = 140°. Seeing that ZHIAG = ZABF, we wonder if it’s always true that a tyansversal will cut parallel lines at equal angles like ZHAG and ZABF. Like the Parallel Postulate, this turns out to be one of those ‘obvious’ facts that cannot be proved. It must be assumed. As we have seen while finding the angles above, once we know that these two are equal, we can quickly use lines and vertical angles to find the rest of the angles. Extral| There is far more imagivaation in the head of Archimedes than in that of Homer. a Voltaire 2BPARALLEL LINES Figure 2.3: Angles Between a ‘Transversal and Two Parallel Lines Thus, we see that when a parallel line is cut by a transversal, we have two groups of four equal angles. Specifically, in Figure 2.3, we have ¢ d=feh Furthermore, the angles in the first group are supplementary to those in the second Pairs of these angles have special names to describe their relationships. These names are not terribly important, but you'll see them elsewhere. aand e are corresponding angles. dand f ate alternate interior angles. aand g are alternate exterior angles. cand f are same-side interior angles. band g are same-side exterior angles. Again, the names are not such a big deal. After doing enough geometry, you'll probably know them anyway. Don't bother memorizing them now. Just understand which angles are equal and which are supplementary. 0 Problem 2.11: Lines m and n are parallel, and we are given the measure of one angle in the diagram as shown. Find the values of a, b,c, w,x, y, and z. vl Solution for Problem 2.11: We know that when a transversal cuts parallel lines, equal angles come in groups of four as we saw in Problem 2.10. Therefore, we know that w = y = c¢ = 113°. We also know that each angle in the other ‘group of four’ has a measure that is supplementary to 113°: = 180° - 113° = 67°.0 Now that we understand the relationships between angles when a parallel line is cut by a transversal, let’s try a more challenging problem. EaCHAPTER 2. ANGLES Problem 2.12: Inthe figure, we have AB || CD and AD || BC. We are also given the measures of four angles as shown in terms of x and y. Find x and y. Solution for Problem 2.12: There's no obvious way to make an equation for x or y, so we start off by using our parallel lines and vertical angles to write the measures of all the angles we know in terms of x and y. ‘3y— 15° By + 15°, By +1 ax 15% ‘After labeling the angles we know in terms of x and y, we look for ways to build equations. We can use angles that together form straight angles at A and B: ZEAN + LEAB = (By +15") + @x- 15°) = 180° LEBA + LEBG + GBH = (By + 15°) +x+y = 180°, Rearranging these gives 60" 165° xey xedy 282.4, PARALLEL LINES ‘Subtracting the first from the second gives us 3y = 105°, so y = 35°, We can then use substitution to find x = 25°, Of course, we didn’t have to label every angle above ~ we could have stopped when we had enough information to set up a pair of equations to solve for x and y. Note that we could have used parallel line relationships to set up the equations, too. Since 4B |] &B, we have DAN = KDM, so 3x - 15° = x+y, Also, HBC and /BCI are supplementary, so v. ‘ppl ys By 15°) + (3x— 15") = 180°. Solving these two equations gives us the same answer as before. (It better!) a Concept: Solving a problem with two different methods is an excellent way to check | your answer. | We'll finish with two more challenging problems that illustrate how useful parallel lines can be when seeking angle measures. Problem 2.13: Given that WV || YZ and WZ || VY in the diagram, find 2: Solution for Problem 2.13: Westartby using what we know about parallel lines to find as many anglesas we can. We find 2V = 180° — 140° = 40° since WZ || VY. Similarly, 2Z = 40°, and ZZYV = 180° ~ ¢Z = 140°. Since Figure 2.6: Diagram for Problem 2.4.3 Figure 2.7: Diagram for Problem 2.4.4 24.4 Inthe diagram at right above, mt ll n, and the angles are as marked. Find x. Hints: 224 24.5 In the diagram at right, k || € and ot | n. If the angles are as marked, find x and y. Hints: 481 ~Albert Einstein2.5, ANGLES IN A TRIANGLE 25 Angles ina Triangle b Figure 2.8: A Triangle When we connect three points with line segments, we form a triangle, as shown in Figure 2.8 above. We will often refer to the triangle as ABC, or sometimes just ABC. The points A, B, and C are called vertices of the triangle, and the segments AB, BC, and AC are called sides. In this section, however, we will investigate the angles of a triangle. zea Problem 2.1 {a} Find the measure of the three angles in each of the triangles below. {b) Can you guess a statement that is always true about the sum of the angles in a triangle? Re es Problem 2.16: Given that (|| m, find <8CD and ¢BDC. Problem 2.17: Prove that the sum of the measures of the angles in a triangle is always 180°. {@) Draw a triangle AABC, anda line k through point A such that k || BC. (b) Find angles in your diagram that are equal to Problem 2.20: Find x given the angle measures shown. Problem 2.21: Prove that 2.7.1 We only did half of the proof in Problem 2.24, Complete the proof by showing. that the two lines cannot meet to the left of PQ. 27.2, For the diagram at left below, we have proved that if 1 cuts k and m such that x = y (that is, corresponding angles are equal), then f || m. Use this fact to show that if y =z (that is, alternate interior angles are equal), then k || m. Figure 2.11: Diagram for Problem 2.7.2 Figure 2.12: Diagram for Problem 2.7.3 2.7.3 Find x in the diagram to the right above. Hints: 427, 519 2.7.4 Write the converse of each of the following statements, then identify whether or not that converse is true. (a) Iftwo teams are playing in the World Cup Finals, then the teams must be playing soccer (©) IFtwo of the angies of a triangle add to 80°, then one angle of the triangle must be 100°. (©) Iariver is the longest river in the world, then it must be the Nile. (a) fan animal is a duck, then it must've a bird. 28 Summary Definitions: Two rays that share an origin form an angle. The common otigin of the raysis the vertex of the angle. We use the symbol / to denote an angle, and we use a point on each side and the vertex, or just the vertex, to identify the angle, such as 2XOY at the right. o Y We can use a protractor to measure angles (see page 14). The semicircular arc of the protractor is divided into 180 degrees, so that a whole circie is 360 degrees. @2.8. SUMMARY Definitions: Angles can be classified by their measures. * A.90° angle is a right angle. Lines, segments, or tays that form a right angle are said to be perpendicular. © Anangle smaller than 90° is an acute angle. | « Anangle between 90° and 180° is an obtuse angle. * Anangle that measures 160° isa straight angle. © Anangle of more than 180” is a reflex angle. Definitions: © Two angles whose measures add to 180° are supplementary angles. Angles that together make up a straight angle form a particularly useful example of supplementary angles, * Two angles whose measures add to 90° are complementary angles. * When two lines intersect, they form two paits of vertical angles, such as ZMPN and LPO below. Vertical angles are equal. Angles LPM and NPM together forma straight angle, so they are supplementary (i.e. add to 180°). Important: ‘The concepts are more important than the words for solving problems, Vv “Angles like ZMPN and £LPO above are equal’ means something with- ‘out any more information. ‘Vertical angles are equal’ doesn’t tell you anything until you reach for your dictionary to look up vertical angles. ‘The words, however, are important for communicating the concepts. For now, though, focus on the ideas. The words will come naturally. Definitions: Two lines that do not intersect are parallel. A line that cuts across multiple parallel lines is called a transversal line. aBCHAPTER 2. ANGLES Important: The angles formed when a transversal cuts across two parallel lines come in two groups of four equal angles as shown: Each of the first set of angles is supplementary to each of the second set of angles. See page 27 for all the special names for pairs of these angles. | (Important: The relationships described above when a transversal cuts two lines can Vv also be used to show that two lines are parallel. Definitions: When we connect three points with line segments, we form a triangle, A ‘The points are the vertices of the triangle, andthe segments are the sides of the triangle. The angles inside the triangle formed by the sides ate the interior angles of a triangle. eS When we refer to the angles of a triangle, we mean the interior angles. Important; ‘The sum of the angles in a triangle is always 180° Vv Definitions: When we extend a side past a vertex of a triangle, we form an exterior angle of the triangle, such as 2XZP shown. Weecall 2X and 2Y the remote interior angles of exterior angle ¢, BE 2 ) oA x B x+10\\A | clsor | 110° 4-10" | » Et E F mere 2.13: Diagram for Problem 2.33 Figure 2.14: Diagram for Problem 2.34 2.34 The measures of the angles are as marked in the diagram to the right above. Find x. 235. The three angles 4, ¢B, and £C have the property that ZA is complementary to 2B, 2B is comple- mentary to éC, and éC is complementary to ZA. Prove that ZA = %REVIEW PROBLEMS 2.36 \Let SABC have (interior) angles in the ratio 3 : 4: 5. What is the measure of its smallest exterior nee fins 135 237 [he exterior angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4. What axe the (interior) angles of the triangle? aN c D_ 2.387 Is it possible for the angles in the diagram to the left to have the measures Indicated? Why or why not? EG+Y 42.39) Isit possible for two exterior angles of a triangle to be supplementary? Why > Fwhy-not? Hints: 491 AS 8 2.40 Three straight lines intersect at O and COD = 247 angles in the diagram to the right are marked as right angles. If 6 = 27°, whdCis the value of 8? (Source: Mandelbrot) 2.48 Whats the number of degrees of the angle formed by the minute and hour hands ofa clock at 11:10 PM? (Source: MATHCOUNTS) Hints: 52, 356, 282 { os Find x in the diagram at left below. Hints: 355 LS ” Figure 2.17: Diagrara for Problem 2.49 Figure 2.18: Diagram for Problem 2.50 v c E '2,50/ The angles in the diagram to the right above are as marked, Find ZBEA. Hints: 8 251 One angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the other two. Show that the sum of two exterior angles of the triangle is 180° greater than the third. Hints: 151, 200 | 252.) One of the angles of the triangle in the previous problem is equal to 40°. What are the measures of He other two angles? rx) 2.53 The angles of a triangle are in arithmetic progression. ¥f one of the angles is 100°, what are the measures of the other two angles? (An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numibers in which the difference between each term and its preceding term is always the same.) Hints: 581 =~ (2.54) It is possible for the interior angles of a triangle to be in the ratio 1 : 2 : 6, but is it possible for the exterior angles of a triangle to be in the ratio 1 : 2: 6? Prove your answer. Hints: 14, 444 2.55 Find 2A + B+ £C+ 2D in the figure at left below. Hints: 358 A B a D c fr Zz Figure 2.19: Diagram for Problem 2.55 Figure 2.20: Diagram for Problem 2.56 Find w+ x+y +z in the figure at right above. Hints: 17, 400