Design Evaluation of Particulate Wet Scrubbing

Systems
In performing an evaluation of a new scrubbing system design, especially
from a regulatory perspective, the major issue is whether the proposed design will
achieve the required particle and/or gas removal efficiencies.
There are three basic approaches to evaluating the capability of a scrubbing
system:
1. Empirical relationships based on historical test data on similar
scrubbers
2. Theoretical models based on basic engineering principles
3. Pilot scale test data
When conducting a review, first, start with the theoretical equations to verify
the basic design then supplement this information with data on similar systems
obtained from literature or the scrubber vendor.

Particulate Scrubber Design Factors

In order to properly design a particulate wet scrubber, we must obtain as
much information as possible concerning the characteristics of the flue gas stream to
be treated.
This information must be obtained or estimated for both the average and
maximum ranges that will occur. Scrubbing systems must be able to operate
effectively at both the normal day-to-day conditions as well as to accommodate any
maximum ranges.
Basically, the two most important site-specific parameters that must be
evaluated by the designer are the particle and gas stream characteristics:

a. Dust Properties
These include particle size distribution, concentration and chemical composition. The
particle size distribution is the most important factor that affects scrubber design and
operation. However, particle size distribution data is rarely available for most sources
and generally must be estimated from similar type sources. The average and
maximum particle concentrations (or grain loading) must be obtained to properly size
the scrubber and the solids removal system. Chemical composition of the dust
particle is important to determine if the material will cause any plugging problems or
precipitate problems.

b. Exhaust Gas Characteristics

These include the average and the maximum flow rates, moisture content, and
chemical composition. The flow rates determine the volume of gas to be treated and
therefore, the size of the scrubbing system. The moisture content and chemical
composition are important in determining the potential corrosiveness of any liquid
streams, pH levels, saturation conditions and spent liquid treatment and disposal
requirements.

We can utilize the above information as the basis for their proposed design
and provide estimates or guarantees for the following important scrubber operating
parameters.
a. Static Pressure Drop

This is dependent on the desired removal efficiency and

mechanical design of the scrubber system. Table 10-1 presents
typical ranges for various wet scrubbers.

b. Liquid Flow Rate

This parameter is based on the evaporation rate and type of

scrubbing system utilized. Values need to be identified for both
normal and maximum operating conditions. Also, if applicable,
the recirculation rate and permissible levels of suspended solids
in the recirculated liquid need to be identified. Table 10-1 lists
typical ranges for various wet scrubbers.

c. Collection Efficiency

The particle removal rate at both normal and maximum levels

should be identified.

d. Removal of Entrained Droplets

The type and efficiency of the mist removal system should be

clearly stated.

All scrubbers are capable of removing particles from a gas stream. Because of their
ability to achieve high particle removal efficiencies and handle heavy grain loadings
without plugging, venturi scrubbers are the most popular scrubber used to remove
particulate matter. Venturis produce high particle to liquid droplet velocities in order
to achieve good particle removal and therefore are limited in their ability to remove
gases.

Estimating Collection Efficiency

Collection efficiency is frequently expressed in terms of penetration.
Penetration is defined as the fraction of particles (in the exhaust stream) that passes
through the scrubber uncollected. Penetration is the opposite of the fraction of
particles collected (i.e. collection efficiency), and is expressed as:

Wet scrubbers usually have an efficiency curve that fits the relationship of

By substituting for
expressed as:

efficiency, penetration can be

An equation for the scrubbing system variables, f (system), can be developed

for a particular scrubber design. We can measure the operating variables and the
collection efficiency of an existing or pilot scale unit.
This information can then be used to evaluate the efficiency of the system.
Scrubber vendors and various consultants have developed equations and
assembled data that can be used to design and evaluate their specific scrubbers.
Unfortunately, much of this information is proprietary.
In addition, an equation that has been designed for a venturi scrubber may
not work well for Design Evaluation of Particulate Wet Scrubbing Systems evaluating
the design of an orifice or cyclonic scrubber. In other words, there is not one specific
equation that can be used to estimate the collection efficiency of every scrubbing
system.
Theoretical penetration models estimate the penetration value as a function of
particle size. This correlation can be applied to the particle size distribution of a
proposed system to estimate overall collection efficiency.
Limitations in using these correlations include the following:

There are often very complex mathematical relationships involved

All the data inputs are either not readily available or non-existent and
must be estimated

Contact Power Theory

A more general theory for estimating collection efficiency is the contact power
theory. This theory is based on a series of experimental observations made by
Lapple and Kamack (1955).
Collection efficiency is a function of how much power the scrubber uses, and
not of how the scrubber is designed. This has a number of implications in the
evaluation and selection of wet collectors. Once you know the amount of power
needed to attain a certain collection efficiency, the claims about specially located
nozzles, baffles, etc. can be evaluated more objectively. The choice between two
different scrubbers with the same power requirements may depend primarily on ease
of maintenance.
Semrau (1959 and 1963) developed the contact power theory from the work
of Lapple and Kamack (1955). The theory, as developed by Semrau, is empirical in
approach and relates the total pressure loss, PT, of the system to the collection
efficiency.
The total pressure loss is expressed in terms of the power expended to inject
the liquid into the scrubber plus the power needed to move the process gas through
the system.

The power expended in

system, PG, is
of the scrubber
drop.

moving the gas

through the
expressed in terms
pressure

The power expended in the liquid stream, PL, is expressed as:

The constants given in the expressions for PG and PL incorporate conversion

factors to put the terms on a consistent basis. The total power can therefore be
expressed as:

The problem now is to correlate this with scrubber efficiency.

The number of
transfer units (Nt) is a
concept
that originated with
plate
towers. Plate towers
have discrete
separation
stages. A plate tower
with
three plates has three separation
stages or transfer units. Transfer
units apply
as well to packed towers, even though they have continuous (rather than discrete)
separations. The number of transfer units is higher in systems where the pollutants
are difficult to capture. Combining Equations 10-2 and 10-17, efficiency then
becomes:

Table 10-2 gives values of and for different industries. The values of and
can be used in either the metric or English units.

The contact power theory cannot predict efficiency from a given particle-size
distribution. The contact power theory gives a relationship which is independent of
the size of the scrubber. With this observation, a small pilot scrubber could first be
used to determine the pressure drop needed for the required collection efficiency.
The full-scale scrubber design could then be scaled up from the pilot information.

Estimating Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is the difference in pressure between the inlet and the outlet of
the scrubbing process. It is the sum of the energy required to accelerate and move
the gas stream and the frictional losses as the gases move through the scrubbing
system.
The following factors affect the pressure drop in a scrubber:

Scrubber design and geometry

Gas velocity
Liquid-to-gas ratio

As with calculating collection efficiency, no one equation can predict the

pressure drop for all scrubbing systems.
Many theoretical and empirical relationships are available for estimating the
pressure drop across a scrubber. Generally, the most accurate are those developed
by scrubber manufacturers for their particular scrubbing systems. Due to the lack of
validated models, it is recommended that users consult the vendor's literature to
estimate pressure drop for the particular scrubbing device of concern.
One expression was developed for venturis and is widely accepted. The
correlation proposed by Calvert (Yung et al. 1977) is:

Using Pilot Methods to Design Scrubbers

The semi-empirical theories previously discussed are useful for scrubber
design and evaluation exercises because they can give qualitatively correct
information.
However, they have a number of practical limitations. It is not common
practice to choose scrubber systems based only on this information. The

uncertainties involved in particle-size determinations and the questions associated

with using empirically determined parameters restrict the use of theoretical methods.
Basically, too many variables are involved and accounting for them all in a
simple theory is too difficult. The time and expense needed to obtain good input data
for these methods may be better spent in developing pilot plant information.
Scrubbers that work primarily through impaction mechanisms have certain
performance characteristics (such as efficiency and pressure drop) which are
independent of scale. This consequence of the contact power principle provides the
basis for using pilot systems.
By using a small-scale scrubber (100 to 1,000 cfm) on the exhaust gas
stream, the effectiveness of the equipment for removing the actual particles in the
gas can be experimentally determined.
Pilot systems ranging from 170 m3/h (100 cfm) units to one-tenth the size of
full-scale plants have been developed in the past. McIlvaine (1977) has compared
the effectiveness of the various design methods. His work is summarized in Table
10-3.

The design of a wet collector system for a particulate-emission problem

requires more than the application of a few design equations. The experience of
scrubber manufacturers with specific industry installations, coupled with the use of
pilot units, provides more reliable ways to determine the size of a system for a wide
range of operating conditions. In many cases, theoretical models can complement
such studies and provide qualitative data for wet collector evaluations.

Summary
When reviewing design plans for a proposed new wet scrubbing system, the
most useful information is operating data from an installation on similar sources.
There are theoretical relationships that can be used to estimate scrubber
performance; however, they are specific to the physical design of one scrubbing
system and often all the needed inputs are not available.
Therefore, an evaluation of wet scrubber design plans should involve utilizing
both theoretical relationships and operating information from similar sources to
assure that the proposed system design can achieve the desired control efficiency
and addresses potential operating problems.
There are a number of parameters that affect particle removal efficiency and
must be considered in the design of a wet scrubbing system; they are the following:

Dust properties (particle size distribution being most important)

Exhaust gas characteristics
Static pressure drop
Scrubber liquid flow rate
Required particle removal efficiencies
Removing entrained liquid droplets

The infinite throat model (for venturis only) and the contact power are two
methods used to estimate scrubber performance that were discussed in this lesson.
The infinite throat model correlates with operating data but is applicable only to
venturi scrubbers. The contact power theory is applicable to various scrubber
designs, but must have pilot plant data to predict efficiency.