Ch 7 Numerical Control

Sections:
1. Fundamentals of NC Technology
2. Computer Numerical Control
3. DNC
4. Applications of NC
5. Engineering Analysis of NC Positioning Systems
6. NC Part Programming

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Numerical Control (NC) Defined

Form of programmable automation in which the mechanical

actions of a machine tool or other equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric
data.
The alphanumeric data represent relative positions
between a workhead (e.g., cutting tool) and a workpart.
When the current job is completed, a new program can be
entered for the next job.

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1
 Basic Components of an NC System

1. Program of instructions
Part program in machining
2. Machine control unit
Controls the process
3. Processing equipment
Performs the process

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Basic Components of an NC System

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2
 Basic Components of an NC System
In modern NC technology, the Machine Control Unit (MCU) is
a microcomputer and related control hardware that stores
the program of instructions and executes it by converting
each command into mechanical actions of the processing
equipment, one command at a time.
The related hardware of the MCU includes components to
interface with the processing equipment and feedback
control elements.
The MCU also includes one or more reading devices for
entering part programs into memory.
Software residing in the MCU includes control system
software, calculation algorithms, and translation software
to convert the NC part program into a usable format for the
MCU.
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Basic Components of an NC System

Because the MCU is a computer, the term computer

numerical control (CNC) is used to distinguish this type of
NC from its technological predecessors that were based
entirely on hard-wired electronics.
Today, virtually all new MCUs are based on computer
technology; hence, when we refer to NC in this chapter
and elsewhere, we mean CNC.

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3
 Basic Components of an NC System

The third basic component of an NC system is the

processing equipment that performs the actual
productive work (e.g., machining).
It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the
starting workpiece into a completed part.
Its operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven
by instructions contained in the part program.
In the most common example of NC, machining, the
processing equipment consists of the worktable and
spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them.

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NC Coordinate Systems
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts
Milling and drilling operations
Conventional Cartesian coordinate system
Rotational axes about each linear axis
Right hand rule

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4
 Coordinate Axis System for
Flat and Prismatic Parts

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NC Coordinate Systems
For rotational parts:
Turning operations
Conventional Cartesian coordinate system, but only x- and
z-axes
y-axis not needed in turning

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5
 Coordinate Axis System for
Rotational Parts

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Motion Control Systems

Point-to-Point systems
Also called position systems
System moves to a location and performs an operation at
that location (e.g., drilling)
Also applicable in robotics
Continuous path systems
Also called contouring systems in machining
System performs an operation during movement
(e.g., milling and turning)

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6
 Point-To-Point Control in NC
Drilling of Three Holes in Flat Plate

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Continuous Path Control in NC

Profile Milling of Part Outline

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7
 Interpolation
A fundamental problem in generating lines that are not
parallel to motion axes and curves using NC equipment is
that they are continuous, whereas NC is digital.
To cut along a circular path, the circle must be divided into a
series of straight line segments that approximate the
curve.
The tool is commanded to machine each line segment in
succession so that the machined surface closely matches
the desired shape.
The maximum error between the nominal (desired) surface
and the actual (machined) surface can be controlled by
the lengths of the individual line segments.
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Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
Circular arc defined by starting point, end point, center
or radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic and cubic interpolation
Free form curves using higher order equations

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8
 Circular Interpolation

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of

straight line segments, where tolerance is defined on only
the inside of the nominal curve.

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Circular Interpolation

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of

straight line segments, where tolerance is defined on only
the outside of the nominal curve.

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9
 Circular Interpolation

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of

straight line segments, where tolerance is defined on both
the inside and outside of the nominal curve.

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Absolute and Incremental Positioning

Absolute positioning
Locations defined relative to origin of axis system

Incremental positioning
Locations defined relative to previous position
Example: drilling

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10
 Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning

The workhead is presently

at point (20, 20) and is to be
moved to point (40, 50)
In absolute positioning,
the move is specified by
x = 40, y = 50
In incremental positioning,
the move is specified by
x = 20, y = 30.

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Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Additional Features
Storage of more than one part program
Various forms of program input
Program editing at the machine tool
Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
Interpolation
Acceleration and deceleration computations
Communications interface
Diagnostics

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11
 Acceleration and Deceleration
Computations
This feature is applicable when the cutter moves at high feed
rates.
It is designed to avoid tool marks on the work surface that
would be generated due to machine tool dynamics when
the cutter path changes abruptly.
The feed rate is smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a tool
path change and then accelerated back up to the
programmed feed rate after the direction change.

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Configuration of
CNC Machine Control Unit

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12
 Configuration of
CNC Machine Control Unit
The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from
conventional NC.
The MCU consists of the following components and
subsystems:
(1) Central processing unit,
(2) Memory,
(3) I/O interface,
(4) Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed,
(5) Sequence controls for other machine tool
functions.

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Central Processing Unit

These subsystems are interconnected by means of a
system bus, which communicates data and signals
among the components of the network.
Central Processing Unit.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the
MCU.
It manages the other components in the MCU based on
software contained in main memory.
The CPU can be divided into three sections:
(1) control section,
(2) arithmetic-logic unit, and
(3) immediate access memory.
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13
 Central Processing Unit
The control section retrieves commands and data from
memory and generates signals to activate other
components in the MCU.
In short, it sequences, coordinates, and regulates all of
the activities of the MCU computer.
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the circuitry
to perform various calculations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication), counting, and logical functions
required by software residing in memory.
The immediate access memory provides a temporary
storage for data being processed by the CPU.
It is connected to main memory by means of the system
data bus.
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Memory

The immediate access memory in the CPU is not

intended for storing CNC software.
A much greater storage capacity is required for the
various programs and data needed to operate the
CNC system.
As with most other computer systems, CNC memory
can be divided into two categories:
(1) main memory, and
(2) secondary memory.
Main memory (also known as primary storage) consists
of ROM (read-only memory) and RAM (random
access memory) devices.
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14
 Memory
Operating system software and machine interface
programs (Section 7.2.3) are generally stored in
ROM.
These programs are usually installed by the
manufacturer of the MCU.
Numerical control part programs are stored in RAM
devices.
Current programs in RAM can be erased and replaced
by new programs as jobs are changed.
High-capacity secondary memory (also called auxiliary
storage or secondary storage) devices are used to
store large programs and data files, which are
transferred to main memory as needed.
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Memory

Common among the secondary memory devices are

hard disks and portable devices that have replaced
most of the punched paper tape traditionally used to
store part programs.
Hard disks are high-capacity storage devices that are
permanently installed in the CNC machine control
unit.
CNC secondary memory is used to store part programs,
macros, and other software.

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15
 I/O Interface
The I/O interface provides communication between the
various components of the CNC system, other
computer systems, and the machine operator.
As its name suggests, the I/O interface transmits and
receives data and signals to and from external
devices.
The operator control panel is the basic interface by
which the machine operator communicates to the
CNC system.
This is used to enter commands related to part program
editing, MCU operating mode (e.g., program control
vs. manual control), speeds and feeds, cutting fluid
pump on/off, and similar functions.
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I/O Interface
Also included in the I/O interface are one or more
means of entering the part program into storage.
As indicated previously, NC part programs are stored in
a variety of ways.
Programs can also be entered manually by the machine
operator or stored at a central computer site and
transmitted via local area network (LAN) to the CNC
system.
Whichever means is employed by the plant, a suitable
device must be included in the I/O interface to allow
input of the program into MCU memory.
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16
 Controls for machine tool axes and spindle
speed

These are hardware components that control the

position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis
as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool
spindle.
The control signals generated by MCU must be
converted to a form and power level suited to the
particular position control systems used to drive the
machine axes.
The hardware components are resident in the MCU.

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Controls for machine tool axes and spindle

speed
Depending on the type of machine tool, the spindle is
used to drive either
(1) the workpiece or
(2) a rotating cutter.
Turning exemplifies the first case, whereas milling and
drilling exemplify the second.
Spindle speed is a programmed parameter for most
CNC machine tools.
Spindle speed control components in the MCU usually
consist of a drive control circuit and a feedback
sensor interface.
The particular hardware components depend on the
type of spindle drive.
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17
 Sequence controls for other machine tool
functions

In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and

spindle speed, several additional functions are
accomplished under part program control.
These auxiliary functions are generally on/off (binary)
actuations, interlocks, and discrete numerical data.
To avoid overloading the CPU, a Programmable Logic
Controller (Chapter 9) is sometimes used to manage
the I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.

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Sequence controls for other machine tool

functions

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18
 CNC Software

The computer in CNC operates by means of software.

There are three types of software programs used in
CNC systems:
(1) operating system software,
(2) machine interface software, and
(3) application software.

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CNC Software -
Operating System Software
The principal function of the operating system
software is to interpret the NC part programs and
generate the corresponding control signals to drive
the machine tool axes.
It is installed by the controller manufacturer and is
stored in ROM in the MCU.
The operating system software consists of:
(1) an editor,
(2) a control program, and
(3) an executive program.
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19
 Operating System Software

(1) Editor permits the machine operator to input and

edit NC part programs and perform other file
management functions;
(2) Control program decodes the part program
instructions, performs interpolation and
acceleration/deceleration calculations, and
accomplishes other related functions to produce
the coordinate control signals for each axis; and
(3) Executive program manages the execution of
the CNC software as well as the I/O operations of
the MCU.
The operating system software also includes the
diagnostic routines that are available in the CNC
system.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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CNC Software -
Machine Interface Software
Machine interface software is used to operate the
communication link between the CPU and the
machine tool to accomplish the CNC auxiliary
functions (Table 7.2).
The I/O signals associated with the auxiliary functions
are sometimes implemented by means of a
programmable logic controller interfaced to the MCU,
so the machine interface software is often written in
the form of ladder logic diagrams (Section 9.2).

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20
 CNC Software - Application Software

The application software consists of the NC part

programs that are written for machining (or other)
applications in the users plant.

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DNC

Direct numerical control (DNC) - control of multiple

machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
1960s technology
Two way communication
Distributed numerical control (DNC) - network
consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNCs
Present technology
Entire programs are downloaded to each MCU,
which is CNC rather than conventional NC.
Two way communication
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21
 General Configuration of a
Direct Numerical Control System

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Direct Numerical Control System

DNC involved the control of a number of machine tools

by a single (mainframe) computer through direct
connection and in real time.
Instead of using a punched tape reader to enter the part
program into the MCU, the program was transmitted
to the MCU directly from the computer, one block of
instructions at a time.
This mode of operation was referred to by the name
behind the tape reader (BTR).
The DNC computer provided instruction blocks to the
machine tool on demand; when a machine needed
control commands, they were communicated to it
immediately.
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22
 Direct Numerical Control System

As each block was executed by the machine, the next

block was transmitted.
As far as the machine tool was concerned, the
operation was no different from that of a conventional
NC controller.
In theory, DNC relieved the NC system of its least
reliable components: the punched tape and tape
reader.

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Direct Numerical Control System

One commercially available DNC system during the

1970s claimed to be capable of controlling up to 256
machines.
In addition to transmitting data to the machines, the
central computer also received data back from the
machines to indicate operating performance in the
shop (e.g., number of machining cycles completed,
machine utilization, and breakdowns).
A central objective of DNC was to achieve two-way
communication between the machines and the
central computer.

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23
 Distributed Numerical Control System

As the number of CNC machine installations grew

during the 1970s and 1980s, a new form of DNC
emerged, called distributed numerical control (DNC).
The configuration of the new DNC is very similar to that
shown in Figure 7.8 except that the central computer
is connected to MCUs, which are themselves
computers.
This permits complete part programs, not one block at a
time, to be sent to the machine tools.
It also permits easier and less costly installation of the
overall system, because the individual CNC
machines can be put into service and distributed NC
can be added later.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Distributed Numerical Control System

Redundant computers improve system reliability

compared with the original DNC.
The new DNC permits two-way communication of data
between the shop floor and the central computer,
which was one of the important features included in
the old DNC.
However, improvements in data collection devices as
well as advances in computer and communications
technologies have expanded the range and flexibility
of the information that can be gathered and
disseminated.

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24
 Distributed Numerical Control System

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Distributed Numerical Control

Configurations
The switching network is the simplest DNC system to
configure.
It uses a data switching box to make a connection from
the central computer to a given CNC machine for
downloading part programs or uploading data.
Transmission of programs to the MCU is accomplished
through an RS-232-C connection. (Virtually all
commercial MCUs include the RS-232-C or
compatible device as standard equipment.)
Use of a switching box limits the number of machines
that can be included in the DNC system.
The limit depends on factors such as part program
complexity, frequency of service required to each
machine, and capabilities of the central computer.
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25
 Distributed Numerical Control
Configurations

Switching network

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Distributed Numerical Control

Configurations
Local Area Networks (LANs) have been used for DNC
since the early 1980s.
Various network structures are used in DNC systems,
among which the centralized structure is the most
extensively used one.
In this arrangement, the computer system is organized
as a hierarchy, with the central (host) computer
coordinating several satellite computers that are each
responsible for a number of CNC machines.
Local area networks in different sections and
departments of a plant are often interconnected in
plant-wide and corporate-wide networks.
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26
 Distributed Numerical Control
Configurations

Local Area Network (LAN)

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NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

1. Batch production
NC is most appropriate for parts produced in small or
medium lot sizes (batch sizes ranging from one unit
up to several hundred units).
Dedicated automation would not be economical for these
quantities because of the high fixed cost.
Manual production would require many separate machine
setups and would result in higher labor cost, longer
lead time, and higher scrap rate.

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27
 NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

2. Repeat orders
Batches of the same parts are produced at random or
periodic intervals.
Once the NC part program has been prepared, parts can
be economically produced in subsequent batches
using the same part program.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

3. Complex part geometries
The part geometry includes complex curved surfaces
such as those found on airfoils and turbine blades.
Mathematically defined surfaces such as circles and
helixes can also be accomplished with NC.
Some of these geometries would be difficult if not
impossible to achieve accurately using conventional
machine tools.
Except for tool wear and equipment malfunctions, NC
produces exact replicates of the part each cycle.
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28
 NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

4. Much metal needs to be removed from the starting
workpiece
This condition is often associated with a complex part
geometry.
The volume and weight of the final machined part is a
relatively small fraction of the starting block.
Such parts are common in the aircraft industry to
fabricate large structural sections with low weights.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

5. Many separate machining operations on the part
This applies to parts consisting of many machined
features requiring different cutting tools, such as
drilled and/or tapped holes, slots, flats, and so on.
If these operations were machined by a series of manual
operations, many setups would be needed.
The number of setups can usually be reduced
significantly using NC.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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29
 NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

NC is most appropriate for:

6. The part is expensive
This factor is often a consequence of one or more of
preceding factors 3,4, and 5.
It can also result from using a high-cost starting work
material.
When the part is expensive, and mistakes in processing
would be costly, the use of NC helps to reduce rework
and scrap losses.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Applications of NC

1. Machine tool applications:

Milling, drilling, turning, boring, grinding, ...

Machining centers, turning centers, mill-turn
centers
Punch presses,
Bending presses,
Tube bending machines,
Welding machines,
Thermal cutting machines (oxyfuel cutting, laser
cutting, plasma arc cutting, ...)
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30
 Applications of NC

2. Other NC applications:

Component insertion machines in electronics

Drafting machines (x-y plotters)
Coordinate measuring machines
Tape laying machines for polymer composites
Filament winding machines for polymer
composites

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Common NC Machining Operations

Turning
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31
 Common NC Machining Operations

Milling
Drilling

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CNC Horizontal Milling Machine

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32
 Advantages of NC

Nonproductive time is reduced

Greater accuracy and repeatability
Lower scrap rates
Inspection requirements are reduced
More complex part geometries are possible
Engineering changes are easier to make
Simpler fixtures
Shorter lead times
Reduce parts inventory and less floor space
Operator skill-level requirements are reduced
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Disadvantages of NC

Higher investment cost

CNC machines are more expensive
Higher maintenance effort
CNC machines are more technologically sophisticated
Part programming issues
Need for skilled programmers
Time investment for each new part
(but repeat orders are easy because part program is
already available)
Higher utilization is required
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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33
 NC Positioning System

Typical motor and leadscrew arrangement in an NC

positioning system for one linear axis
For x-y capability, the apparatus would be piggybacked on
top of a second perpendicular axis
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Analysis of Positioning NC Systems

Two types of NC positioning systems:
1. Open-loop - no feedback to verify that the actual
position achieved is the desired position
2. Closed-loop - uses feedback measurements to
confirm that the final position is the specified position
Open-loop systems cost less than closed-loop systems
and are appropriate when the force resisting the
actuating motion is minimal.
Closed-loop systems are normally specified for machines
that perform continuous path operations such as
milling or turning, in which there are significant forces
resisting the forward motion of the cutting tool.
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34
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

Operates without verifying that the actual position

achieved in the move is the desired position

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Closed-Loop Motion Control System

Uses feedback measurements to confirm that the final

position of the worktable is the location specified in the
program

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35
 Open-Loop Motion Control System
An open-loop positioning system typically uses a stepper
motor to rotate the leadscrew.
A stepper motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses,
which are generated by the MCU in an NC system.
Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one
revolution, called the step angle.
The possible step angles must be consistent with the
relationship

where is the step angle (degrees), and ns is the number

of step angles for the motor, which must be an integer.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Open-Loop Motion Control System

The angle through which the motor shaft rotates is given

by

where Am is the angle of motor shaft rotation (degrees),

and np is the number of pulses received by the motor, and
is the step angle (degrees/pulse).

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36
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

The motor shaft is generally connected to the leadscrew

through a gearbox, which reduces the angular rotation of
the leadscrew.
The angle of the leadscrew rotation must take the gear
ratio into account as

where A is the angle of leadscrew rotation (degrees), and

rg is the gear ratio, defined as the number of turns of the
motor for each single turn of the leadscrew.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Open-Loop Motion Control System

That is,

where Nm is the rotational speed of the motor (rev/mm),

and N is the rotational speed of the leadscrew (rev/mm).
The linear movement of the worktable is given by the
number of full and partial rotations of the leadscrew
multiplied by its pitch (lead!),

where x is x-axis position relative to the starting position

(mm, inch), p is the lead! of the leadscrew (mm/rev,
in/rev), and A/360 is the number of leadscrew revolutions.
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37
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

The number of pulses (np ) required to achieve a specified

x-position increment in a point-to-point system can be
found by combining the two preceding equations as

where the second expression on the right-hand side is

obtained by substituting ns for 360/, which is obtained by
rearranging.
ns is the number of step angles for the motor.
rg is the gear ratio, p is the lead of the leadscrew.
2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Open-Loop Motion Control System

Control pulses are transmitted from the pulse generator at

a certain frequency, which drives the worktable at a
corresponding velocity or feed rate in the direction of the
leadscrew axis.
The rotational speed of the leadscrew depends on the
frequency of the pulse train as

where, N is the leadscrew rotational speed (rev/min),

fp is the pulse train frequency (Hz, pulses/sec), and
ns is the steps per revolution or pulses per revolution.
(rg is the gear ratio.)
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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38
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

For a two-axis table with continuous path control, the

relative velocities of the axes are coordinated to achieve
the desired travel direction.
The table travel speed in the direction of leadscrew axis is
determined by the rotational speed as

where, vt is the table travel speed (mm/min, in/min),

fr is the table feed rate (mm/min, in/min),
N is the leadscrew rotational speed (rev/mm), and
p is the leadscrew lead! (mm/rev, in/rev).
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Open-Loop Motion Control System

The required pulse train frequency (fp ) to drive the table

at a specified linear travel rate can be obtained by
combining the equations and rearranging to solve for fp.

vt is the table travel speed (mm/min, in/min),

ns is the steps per revolution or pulses per revolution,
rg is the gear ratio,
p is the leadscrew lead! (mm/rev, in/rev),
fr is the table feed rate (mm/min, in/min).
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

39
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Open-Loop Motion Control System

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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40
 Open-Loop Motion Control System

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Closed-Loop Motion Control System

A closed-loop NC system uses servomotors and feedback

measurements to ensure that the worktable is moved to
the desired position.
A common feedback sensor used for NC (and also for
industrial robots) is the optical encoder.
An optical encoder is a device for measuring rotational
speed that consists of a light source and a photo detector
on either side of a disk.

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41
 Closed-Loop Motion Control System
The disk contains slots uniformly spaced around the
outside of its face. These slots allow the light source to
shine through and energize the photo detector.
The disk is connected to a rotating shaft whose angular
position and velocity are to be measured.
As the shaft rotates, the slots cause the light source to be
seen by the photocell as a series of flashes.
The flashes are converted into an equal number of
electrical pulses.
By counting the pulses and computing the frequency of
the pulse train, one can determine the worktable position
and velocity.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Optical Encoder

Device for measuring rotational position and speed

Common feedback sensor for closed-loop NC control
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42
 Closed-Loop Motion Control System
The equations that define the operation of a closed-loop
NC positioning system are similar to those for an open-
loop system.
In the basic optical encoder, the angle between slots in the
disk must satisfy the following requirement:

where is the angle between slots (degrees/slot), and

ns is the number of slots in the disk (slots/rev).
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Closed-Loop Motion Control System

For a certain angular rotation of the encoder shaft, the
number of pulses sensed by the encoder is given by

where np is the pulse count emitted by the encoder,

A is the angle of rotation of the encoder shaft (degrees),
is the angle between slots, which converts to degrees
per pulse.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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43
 Closed-Loop Motion Control System
The pulse count can be used to determine the linear x-axis
position of the worktable by factoring in the leadscrew
pitch.

The velocity of the worktable, which is normally the feed

rate in a machining operation, is obtained from the
frequency of the pulse train.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Closed-Loop Motion Control System

The pulse train generated by the encoder is compared
with the coordinate position and feed rate specified in the
part program, and the difference is used by the MCU to
drive the servomotor, which in turn drives the worktable.
A digital-to-analog converter is used to convert the
digital signals used by the MCU into a continuous
analog current that powers the drive motor.
Closed-loop NC systems of the type described here are
appropriate when a reactionary force resists the
movement of the table.
Metal cutting machine tools that perform continuous path
cutting operations, such as milling and turning, fall into this
category.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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44
 Closed-Loop Motion Control System

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Closed-Loop Motion Control System

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45
 Precision in NC Positioning
Three measures of precision:
1. Control resolution - distance separating two adjacent
addressable points in the axis movement
2. Accuracy - maximum possible error that can occur
between the desired target point and the actual position
taken by the system
3. Repeatability - defined as 3 of the mechanical error
distribution associated with the axis

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Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution
Control resolution refers to the control systems ability to
divide the total range of the axis movement into closely
spaced points that can be distinguished by the MCU.
Addressable points are locations along the axis to which
the worktable can be specifically directed to go.
It is desirable for control resolution to be as small as
possible, which depends on limitations imposed by:
(1) the electromechanical components of the
positioning system and/or
(2) the number of bits used by the controller to define
the axis coordinate location.
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46
 Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution
A number of electromechanical factors affect control
resolution, including

(1) leadscrew pitch,

(2) gear ratio in the drive system, and the
(3) step angle in a stepper motor for an open-loop
system or
(4) the angle between slots in an encoder disk for a
closed-loop system.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution, CR1
For an open-loop positioning system driven by a stepper
motor, these factors can be combined into an expression
that defines control resolution as:

where CR1 is the control resolution of the

electromechanical components (mm, in),
p is the leadscrew pitch (mm/rev, in/rev),
ns = number of steps per revolution, and
rg = gear ratio between the motor shaft and the leadscrew.
A similar expression can be used for a closed-loop
positioning system.
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47
 Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution, CR2
The second factor that limits control resolution is the
number of bits used by the MCU to specify the axis
coordinate value.
For example, this limitation may be imposed by the bit
storage capacity of the controller.
If B is the number of bits in the storage register for the
axis, then the number of control points into which the axis
range can be divided is 2B.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution, CR2
Assuming that the control points are separated equally
within the range, then

where CR2 is the control resolution of the computer control

system (mm, in), and
L is the axis range (mm, in).
The control resolution of the positioning system is the
maximum of the two values; that is,

CR = Max {CR1, CR2 } (7.18)

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48
 Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution
A desirable criterion is CR2 <= CR1, meaning that the
electromechanical system is the limiting factor that
determines control resolution.
The bit storage capacity of a modern computer controller
is sufficient to satisfy this criterion except in unusual
situations.
Resolutions of 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in) are within the
current state of NC technology.
(Control resolution refers to the control systems ability to
divide the total range of the axis movement into closely
spaced points that can be distinguished by the MCU.)
2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Accuracy

Accuracy is defined under worst case conditions in which

the desired target point lies in the middle between two
adjacent addressable points.
Since the table can only be moved to one or the other of
the addressable points, there will be an error in the final
position of the worktable.
This is the maximum possible positioning error,
because if the target were closer to either one of the
addressable points, then the table would be moved to the
closer control point and the error would be smaller.
It is appropriate to define accuracy under this worst case
scenario.
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49
 Accuracy
The accuracy of any given axis of a positioning system is
the maximum possible error that can occur between the
desired target point and the actual position taken by the
system.

where CR is the control resolution (mm, in), and

is the standard deviation of the error distribution.

Accuracies in machine tools are generally expressed for a

certain range of table travel, for example, 0.01 mm for
250 mm (0.0004 in. for 10 in) of table travel.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Definitions of Control Resolution,

Accuracy, and Repeatability

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50
 Precision in NC Positioning -
Mechanical Errors
The ability of a positioning system to move the worktable
to the exact location defined by a given addressable point
is limited by mechanical errors that are due to various
imperfections in the mechanical system.
These imperfections include play between the leadscrew
and the worktable, backlash in the gears, and deflection of
machine components.
We assume that the mechanical errors form an unbiased
normal statistical distribution about the control point whose
mean = 0.
We further assume that the standard deviation of the
distribution is constant over the range of the axis under
consideration.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Precision in NC Positioning -
Control Resolution
Given these assumptions, then nearly all of the
mechanical errors (99.73%) are contained within
3 of the control point.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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51
 Repeatability

Repeatability refers to the ability of the positioning system

to return to a given addressable point that has been
previously programmed.
This capability can be measured in terms of the location
errors encountered when the system attempts to position
itself at the addressable point.
Location errors are a manifestation of the mechanical
errors of the positioning system, which follow a normal
distribution, as assumed previously.
Thus, the repeatability of any given axis of a positioning
system is 3 ( 3 x standard deviations) of the
mechanical error distribution associated with the axis.
2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Repeatability

Repeatability = 3 (7.20)
The repeatability of a modern NC machine tool is around
0.0025 mm (0.0001 in).

2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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52
 Control Resolution, Accuracy, and
Repeatability

2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Control Resolution, Accuracy, and

Repeatability

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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53
 Control Resolution, Accuracy, and
Repeatability

Desired Addressable
position position

0 CR/2
Possible
region for the
actual position

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

NC Part Programming
1. Manual part programming
2. Computer-assisted part programming
3. Part programming using CAD/CAM
4. Manual data input

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

54
 Binary Coded Decimal System
Each of the ten digits in decimal system is coded with
four-digit binary number
The binary numbers are added to give the value
BCD is compatible with 8 bits across tape format, the
original storage medium for NC part programs
Eight bits can also be used for letters and symbols

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Creating Instructions for NC

Bit - 0 or 1 = absence or presence of hole in the tape

Character - row of bits across the tape
Word - sequence of characters (e.g., y-axis position)
Block - collection of words to form one complete
instruction
Part program - sequence of instructions (blocks)

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

55
 Creating Instructions for NC
NC uses a combination of the binary and decimal number
systems, called the binary-coded decimal (BCD) system.
In this coding scheme, each of the ten digits (0-9) in the
decimal system is coded as a four-digit binary number,
and these binary numbers are added in sequence as in
the decimal number system.

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Creating Instructions for NC

For example, the decimal value 1250 would be coded in

BCD as follows:

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56
 Block Format
Organization of words within a block in NC part program
Also known as tape format because the original
formats were designed for punched tape
Word address format - used on all modern CNC
controllers
Uses a letter prefix to identify each type of word
Spaces to separate words within the block
Allows any order of words in a block
Words can be omitted if their values do not
change from the previous block

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Types of Words

N - sequence number prefix

G - preparatory words
Example: G00 = Point-to-Point rapid traverse move
X, Y, Z - prefixes for x, y, and z-axes
F - feed rate prefix
S - spindle speed
T - tool selection
M - miscellaneous command
Example: M07 = turn cutting fluid on

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57
 Example: Word Address Format
N001 G00 X07000 Y03000 M03
N002 Y06000

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Issues in Manual Part Programming

Adequate for simple jobs, e.g., PTP drilling
Linear interpolation
G01 G94 X050.0 Y086.5 Z100.0 F40 S800
Circular interpolation
G02 G17 X088.0 Y040.0 R028.0 F30
Cutter offset
G42 G01 X100.0 Y040.0 D05

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58
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Manual part programming is time-consuming, tedious,
and subject to human errors for complex jobs
Machining instructions are written in English-like
statements that are translated by the computer into
the low-level machine code of the MCU
APT (Automatically Programmed Tool)
The various tasks in computer-assisted part
programming are divided between
The human part programmer
The computer

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Sequence of activities in computer-assisted part

programming

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59
 Part Programmer's Job

Two main tasks of the programmer:

1. Define the part geometry
2. Specify the tool path

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Defining Part Geometry

Underlying assumption: no matter how complex the part

geometry, it is composed of basic geometric elements and
mathematically defined surfaces
Geometry elements are sometimes defined only for use in
specifying tool path
Examples of part geometry definitions:
P4 = POINT/35,90,0
L1 = LINE/P1,P2
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P8,RADIUS,30

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60
 Specifying Tool Path and
Operation Sequence

Tool path consists of a sequence of points or connected

line and arc segments, using previously defined geometry
elements
Point-to-Point command:
GOTO/P0
Continuous path command
GOLFT/L2,TANTO,C1

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Other Functions in Computer-Assisted

Part Programming

Specifying cutting speeds and feed rates

Designating cutter size (for tool offset calculations)
Specifying tolerances in circular interpolation
Naming the program
Identifying the machine tool

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61
 Cutter Offset

Cutter path must be

offset from actual
part outline by a
distance equal to
the cutter radius

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Computer Tasks in Computer-Assisted

Part Programming
1. Input translation converts the coded instructions in the
part program into computer-usable form
2. Arithmetic and cutter offset computations performs the
mathematical computations to define the part surface and
generate the tool path, including cutter offset
compensation (CLFILE)
3. Editing provides readable data on cutter locations and
machine tool operating commands (CLDATA)
4. Postprocessing converts CLDATA into low-level code
that can be interpreted by the MCU

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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62
 NC Part Programming Using
CAD/CAM
Geometry definition
If the CAD/CAM system was used to define the original
part geometry, no need to recreate that geometry as in
APT
Automatic labeling of geometry elements
If the CAD part data are not available, geometry must
be created, as in APT, but user gets immediate visual
feedback about the created geometry

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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Tool Path Generation Using

CAD/CAM

Basic approach: enter the commands one by one (similar

to APT)
CAD/CAM system provides immediate graphical
verification of the command
Automatic software modules for common machining
cycles
Profile milling
Pocket milling
Drilling bolt circles

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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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63
 Examples of Machining Cycles in
Automated NC Programming Modules

Pocket milling

Contour turning

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Examples of Machining Cycles in

Automated NC Programming Modules

Facing and shoulder facing

Threading (external)

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64
 Manual Data Input

Machine operator does part programming at machine

Operator enters program by responding to prompts and
questions by system
Monitor with graphics verifies tool path
Usually for relatively simple parts
Ideal for small shop that cannot afford a part programming
staff
To minimize changeover time, system should allow
programming of next job while current job is running

2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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65