INTERSECTIONS

AT GRADE INTERSECTIONS
1
 INTERSECTIONS
INTERSECTIONS = INTERRUPTED FACILITIES
Definitions and key elements
An intersection is defined as an area where two or more roadways join or cross.

Each roadway extending from the intersection is referred to as a leg. The

intersection of two roadways has usually four legs (or three if there one of the
roadway is ended). The leg used by traffic approaching the intersection is the
approach leg, and that used by traffic leaving is the departure leg.

The major street is typically the intersecting street with greater traffic volume,
larger cross-section, and higher functional class.

The minor street is the intersecting street likely to have less traffic volume,
smaller cross-section and lower functional classification than the major street.

Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements

into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings (regulation of
traffic)
traffic). 2
 INTERSECTIONS
Definitions and key elements
Sidewalks,
Gray area = FUNCTION AREA OF
crosswalks and
INTERSECTION
pedestrian curb
cut ramps are
considered to
be within the
intersection.

The pavement
edge corner is
the curve
connecting the
edges of pavement
of the intersecting
streets.

3
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of intersections

or stagerred intersection
or cross intersection
(or scissor) 4

The angle of intersection is formed by the intersecting streets centerlines (best

angle is between 75 and 105 degrees).
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of manoeuvres within intersections
Typical manoeuvres are:
- Crossing
- Merging
- Diverging
Di i
- Weaving

5
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of manoeuvres within intersections
Crossings may be direct, if the angle of skew is
between 75 and 105 degrees, or oblique if the
angle is in the range of below 75 or above 105
Crossing
degrees. (Oblique skews should be voided if at all
possible).
)

Diverging is a traffic operation when the vehicles

moving
i i one direction
in di ti i separated
is t d into
i t different
diff t
streams according to their destinations.

Merging is the opposite of diverging.

diverging Merging is
referred to as the process of joining the traffic
coming from different approaches and going to a
common destination into a single stream.
stream

Weaving is the combined movement of both

merging and diverging movements in the same 6
direction.
All manoeuvres within intersection result in conflits
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of conflict points within intersections
Typical conflict points are:
- Crossing conflicts (through traffic, left turns with through traffic)
- Merging conflicts
- Diverging conflicts
4 through traffic
4 left turns
8 lleft
ft turns
t through
th h traffic
t ffi

8 merging
8 diverging
8 possible
pedestrians

7
pedestrians not included
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of conflict points within intersections
Typical conflict points are:
- Crossing conflicts (through traffic, left turns with through traffic)
- Merging conflicts
- Diverging conflicts

Number of intersection legs Number of conflicts

3 9
4 32
5 80
6 168

8
 INTERSECTIONS
Basic types of conflict points within intersections

CROSS INTERSECTION
- 32 conflict points 8
merging + 8 diverging + 16
crossing

ROUNDABOUT
- 8 conflict points 4
diverging + 4 merging

9
 INTERSECTIONS
Intersections in traffic engineering
REMEMBER THAT:
1 Intersections are more complicated areas for drivers
1.
than uninterrupted facilities.
Drivers have to make split second decisions within intersections by considering their routes,
routes
intersection geometry, speeds and directions of other vehicles etc.
A small error in judgment can cause accidents.
Understanding
g this is central to intersection designs
g and to determine
capacity.

2. Main function of intersections is to provide change of

direction.
Direction changes within intersections define conflict points.

3. Interesections are sources of congestion in urban

areas. 10
Manoeuvres within intersections cause delays.
 INTERSECTIONS

BASIC DESIGN PRINCPLES

11
 BASIC DESIGN PRINCPLES
Thi principles
This i i l are independent
i d d on national
i l standards.
d d

If one of them is not ensure than there could be problems within intersection
with
ith speed,
d traffic,
t ffi manoeuvres or safety
f t off peds
d or bi
bicyclists.
li t

1. MINIMISE THE CARRIAGEWAY AREA WHERE CONFLICT CAN OCCUR

2
2. SEPARATE (REDUCE) POINTS OF CONFLICTS
3. TRAFFIC STREAMS SHOULD MERGE/DIVERGE AT FLAT ANGLES AND CROSS AT
RIGHT ANGLES
4. REDUCE SPEEDS ON THE APPROACHES TO INTERSECTIONS
5. DECELERATING OR STOPPING VEHICLES SHOULDBE REMOVED FROM THE
THROUGH TRAFFIC STREAM, HIGH PRIORITY TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
SHOULD BE FAVOUR
6. DISCOURAGE UNDESIRABLE TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
7. PROVIDE REFUGES FOR VULNERABLE ROAD USERS
8. PROVIDE REFERENCE MARKERS FOR ROAD USERS
9. PROVIDE ADVANCE WARNING OF CHANGE AND GOOD SAFE LOCATIONS FOR
THE INSTALLATION OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
10. CONTROL ACCES IN THE VICINITY OF AN INTERSECTION
12
11. PROVIDE SAFETY STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES AND KEEP THE SIGHT
TRIANGLE WITHOUT ANY OBSTRUCTIONS
1. MINIMISE THE CARRIAGEWAY AREA WHERE
CONFLICT CAN OCCUR
Large uncontrolled carriageway areas within intersection provide greater
opportunities for collisions resulting from unexpected vehicle
manoeuvres
manoeuvres.
To prevent this traffic island
channelisation can be used.

WIDE AREA

NOT TOO SAFE

MUCH BETTER DESIGN

13
2. SEPARATE (REDUCE) POINTS OF CONFLICTS
Left turningg is prohibited
within point of intersect
- by prohibiting certain traffic
movements at an intersection

Left turning is allowed here

- by conversion conventional
intersection to a roundabout

- by using two separated

intersection instead of a single
more complicated one
14
2. SEPARATE (REDUCE) POINTS OF CONFLICTS
POSSIBLE WAY TO REDESIGN INCORRECT
INTERSECTION
THICK LINE = MAJOR STREET

15
3. TRAFFIC STREAMS SHOULD MERGE/DIVERGE AT
FLAT ANGLES
G S AND CROSS
C OSS AT RIGHT
G ANGLES
G S
Merging / Diverging:
Merging / diverging should be as flat as possible (max 15
15).
).

Crossing:
C
Crossings
i should
h ld be
b direct
di t (90).
(90)

The angle of skew range have to be between 75 and 105.

Oblique angles should be avoided if it is possible,

or redesign according to figures a d:

16
4. REDUCE SPEEDS ON THE APPROACHES TO
INTERSECTIONS
Minor road vehicles should approach the intersection slowly. Than they can
easily stop and give way to through traffic.

Figure illustrates how this effect can be

achieved by the use of a roundabout (right
side) or a traffic island (down) .

This method also has the advantage 17

that it prevents overtaking in closer
area of the intersection.
5. DECELERATING OR STOPPING VEHICLES SHOULD
BE REMOVED FROM THE THROUGH TRAFFIC
STREAM, HIGH PRIORITY TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
SHOULD BE FAVOUR
Separating the traffic streams into auxiliary lanes reduces the
number and severity of rear end crashes and increase capacity

minor street major street

18

major street minor street

6. DISCOURAGE UNDESIRABLE TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
Traffic islands and corner radii can be
used to discourage motorists from taking
undesirable travel paths,
paths and encourage
them to take defined ones

Traffic island for

No Left Turn

19
7. PROVIDE REFUGES FOR VULNERABLE ROAD USERS
Pedestrians and also handicapped persons often need to cross a
road in two separate manoeuvres.
Properly sited traffic islands have the added advantage that they
can be used as refuges by these vulnerable road users, especially
at intersections on wide roads

20
8. PROVIDE REFERENCE MARKERS FOR ROAD USERS
Drivers should be provided with appropriate references at intersections
intersections, ff.e.
e
Stop/Give Way lines which indicate where the lead vehicle in a minor road
traffic stream should stop until a suitable entry gap appears in the main
road stream.

REFERENCE MARKERS ALSO INCLUDE CROSSWALKS

AND CYCLE TRACKS ON PAVEMENT
21
 9. PROVIDE ADVANCE WARNING OF CHANGE AND
GOOD SAFE LOCATIONS FOR THE INSTALLATION
OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Dri ers sho
Drivers should
ld ne
never
er be s
suddenly
ddenl faced with
ith the
unexpected.
Advance signing that
MINOR STREET
warns drivers ahead of
intersections should be
MAJOR STREET
use.
This warning should be
provided on minor roads
leading to controlled
intersections, on all roads
where visibility is restricted
prior to an intersection,
intersection and
in high speed roads.

22
The possible use of traffic control devices should always be considered; for instance, the
design of an intersection to be eventually controlled by signals may differ from one
requiring channelistation and signs.
10.CONTROL ACCES IN THE VICINITY OF AN
INTERSECTION
Driveways (i.e. approaches to
estates, parking places) should not
be designed within the function area
of a newly designed intersection.

If such acces points already exists and

closure is not possible for practical
reasons, than channellisation
techniques should be used to prevent
entering vehicles from crossing the
traffic flow,, i.e. the vehicles entering
g the
intersection from the driveway should
always merge with the nearside traffic
stream.

23
11. PROVIDE SAFETY STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES
AND KEEP THE SIGHT TRIANGLE WITHOUT ANY
OBSTRUCTIONS

NO OBSTRUCTIONS
SHOULD BE WITHIN
SIGHT TRIANGLES
DESIGN OF SIGHT
TRIANGLES
24
DEPENDS ON
NATIONAL
METHODOLOGIES
11. PROVIDE SAFETY STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES
AND KEEP THE SIGHT TRIANGLE WITHOUT ANY
OBSTRUCTIONS
Safe location of intersection in horizontal alignment:
g

in straight best solution

in flat curve possible solution

Safe location of intersection in horizontal alignment:

in sag curve best solution

in straight between two curves (max 3 %)

possible solution
25
THIS LOCATIONS PROVIDE MOST COMFORT AND
SAFETY SIGHT DISTANCES !!!
 INTERSECTIONS
OTHER RULES
26
CROSSING ANGLE

BETWEEN 75 AN 105 DEGREES

27
DISTANCE BETWEEN INTERSECTIONS
HIGHWAYS AND ROADS:

Intersection distance in km on highways and roads

Highways and Roads

Design speed
motorways y Lane divided Two lane roads ((undivided))
lane divided I. class II. a III. class
120 4,0 - - -
100 4,0 2,5 - -
90 - 2,5 2,0 -
80 30
3,0 20
2,0 20
2,0 15
1,5
70 - 1,5 1,5 1,0
60 - - 1,0 0,5
50 - - - 0,25

Distance is measured between auxiliary lanes startings and endings 28

DISTANCE BETWEEN INTERSECTIONS
URBAN ROADS AND MUNICIPAL COMMUNICATIONS:

Intersection
Lay out of distance in m
Functional group Type of crossing
traffic lanes
minimum
Lane divided road
A Interchange only 1000
-
Lane divided road 150
B I t h
Interchange, intersection
i t ti
(70 - exception)
Undivided
Lane divided road
C Intersection 50
Undivided

29
Distance is measured between points of intersect
AUXILIARY TURNING LANES
Auxiliary lanes include:
- left and right-turn deceleration lanes

- right turn acceleration lanes

The length of auxiliary lanes depends on local conditions, traffic
volumes traffic mix,
volumes, mix design speed,
speed posted speed,
speed selected level of
service, longitudinal slope and operating speeds.

Auxiliary lanes should be from 3 3,5 3 5 m wide to minimize

encroachment (zsah) of turning vehicles upon the adjacent travel way.

In restricted urban locations where space is limited and operating 30

speeds are low, a minimum of 2,5 2,75 m plus the curb offset may be
the only width attainable.
AUXILIARY TURNING LANES
LEFT AND RIGHT-TURN
RIGHT TURN DECELERATION LANES WHY THEY ARE
USING?
2. 3.

1. 1. 2.
location of the vehicle in the 3.
same time

location of the vehicle in the

same time
3
3.
1. 1. 2. 2.

31
(improvement of traffic continuousness decelerating and stopping
vehicles are removed from through traffic stream)
AUXILIARY TURNING LANES
LEFT AND RIGHT-TURN
RIGHT TURN DECELERATION LANES DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Lv Taper lenght
Ld Deceleration lenght
Lc Storage lenght
v original speed;

each segment must be

designed separately

32
AUXILIARY TURNING LANES
RIGHT TURN ACCELERATION LANES WHY THEY ARE USING?
RIGHT-TURN

1. 2. 3.

3
3.
2.
1.
right-turn acceleration lane
interchange
location of the vehicle in the ramp
same time

(improvement of traffic continuousness accelerating vehicles are

removed from fast through traffic stream)

33
AUXILIARY TURNING LANES
RIGHT TURN ACCELERATION LANES DESIGN PRINCIPLES
RIGHT-TURN

La Acceleration lenght
Lm Manoeuvringg lenght
g
Lz Departure Taper

SPLITTING SEGMENT splits right-turn acceleration lane

through and aceceleration lanes interchange
(
(separation
ti li
line can nott exceed
d to
t ramp 34
manoeuvring segment)
e is separation line (horizontal traffic marking);
CURB RADIUS

Minimal R0 in m vehicle

allowed recommended

5,00 6,00 personal motor car, van

7,00 8,00 small and middle cargo truck, bus

9,00 10,00 cargo truck, transit bus, semi

trailer 35

12,00 15,00 long city bus, trailer, long vehicle

 INTERSECTIONS

INTERSECTION CONTROL
36
 INTERSECTION CONTROL
Passive control (LEVEL I)
When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required. Here the
road users are required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control
like guide traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the
intersection control. Some of the intersection control that are classified
under passive control are as follows:

No control
If the traffic coming to an intersection is very low,
low then is sufficient applying the basic rules of
the road (right hand rule).

Informatory
y traffic signs
g
Informatory traffic signs only waken (warn) the drivers, i.e. locality with right hand rule
etc. This signs dont provide any additional intersection control.

Informatory traffic signs plus marking

Some of the examples include recommended stop line marking, recommended yield lines,
arrow marking etc. This signs also dont provide any additional intersection control.
37
 INTERSECTION CONTROL
Semi control (LEVEL II)
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts. Traffic signs,
channelization and traffic rotaries are three examples of this:
Traffic signs
g
With the help of warning signs, it is able to provide some level of control at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop
control, and all-way stop control are some examples.
The GIVE WAY (YIELD) control requires the driver in the minor road to slow down to a minimum speed and allow the vehicle
on the major road to proceed.
Two way stop control requires the vehicle drivers on the minor streets should see that the conflicts are avoided.
avoided
Finally an all-way stop control is usually used when it is difficult to differentiate between the major and minor roads in an
intersection. In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the intersection and the driver on all the approaches
are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at the right side will get priority over the left approach. The traffic control at 'at-
grade' intersection may be uncontrolled in cases of low traffic. Here the road users are required to obey the basic rules of the
road. Passive control like traffic signs, road markings etc. are used to complement the intersection control.

Channelization techniques
The traffic is separated to flow through definite paths by using traffic islands supplemented by road markings. The
conflicts in traffic movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case. In channelized intersections, as the name
suggests, the traffic is directed to flow through different channels and this physical separation is made possible with the help of
some barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc.

Traffic rotaries / roundabouts

It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic is made to flow along one direction around a traffic island. The essential
principle of this control is to convert all the crossing conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and diverging. Free-left
turn and through movements are permitted all of traffic movements are forced to move around the central island in a
clock-wise direction. Merging, g g, weaving g and diverging
g g operations
p reduces the conflictingg movements at the rotary.
y 38
 INTERSECTION CONTROL
A ti control
Active t l (LEVEL III)
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by
the traffic control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish. Traffic signals
and grade separated intersections come under this classification:

Traffic signals
Control using g traffic signal
g is based on time sharing g approach.
pp At a ggiven time,, certain traffic movements
are restricted where as certain other movements are permitted to pass through the intersection. Two or
more phases may be provided depending upon the traffic conditions of the intersection.
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are fixed time signals and vehicle actuated
signals.
g In fixed time signals,
g , the cycle
y time,, p
phases and interval of each signal
g is fixed. Each cycle
y of the
signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater to the needs of the fluctuating traffic. On the other
hand, vehicle actuated signals can respond to dynamic traffic situations. Vehicle detectors will be placed on
the streets approaching the intersection and the detector will sense the presence of the vehicle and pass
the information to a controller. The controller then sets the cycle y time and adjusts
j the pphase lengths
g
according to the prevailing traffic conditions.

Grade separated intersections / interchanges

Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels.
levels Grade separated
intersections are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways, freeways etc. These type of
intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can flow with high speed and accident potential
is also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic.
39