Road Intersection

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 1

Road Intersection:
• The general area where two or more roads
join or cross, including the roadway and
roadside facilities for traffic movement within
it.(AASHTO-2001)

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 2

Basic requirements:
• The area of conflict should be small at the intersection
• The relative speed and the angle of approach of vehicle should be
small
• Sufficient visibility for vehicles approaching the intersection
• Sudden change of path should be avoided
• Geometric features (pavement width, turning radius) should be
adequately provided
• Proper sign to warn the drivers should be provided
• Separate provision for pedestrians and cyclist should be provided
• Night lighting

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 3

 Classification
1. Intersection at grade:
- join or cross at the same level
2. Grade separated intersection:
- roads are separated at different level

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 4

 Basic forms of at-grade intersection

Tee Y Skew cross

Cross

Staggered Staggered skewed Multiple

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 5

Basic forms of grade separated intersection

Trumpet Clover leaf

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 6
 Basic forms of grade separated
intersection……

Diamond intersection

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 7

Unchannelized and Channelized Intersection

1. Unchannelized intersection
• The intersection area is paved and there is
absolutely no restriction to vehicles to use
part of intersection area.
-difficult in traffic operation
-maximum number of conflict point

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 8

 Unchannelized intersection

T (flared)
Tee (plain)

Cross (flared)
Cross (plain)

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 9

2. Channelization intersection:
• Intersection in which islands are introduced at
intersection area, thus reducing the total
conflict area available in unchannelized
intersection is known as channelized
intersection.
• The direction of flow to definite paths by means
of traffic road marking, island or other is known
as channelization.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 10
Advantages:
• Vehicles are confined to definite path
• Decreased conflict area
• Control of speed for entering vehicle
• The channelizing islands provide proper place
for installation of signs and signals
• Refuse islands can be provided for
pedestrians.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 11
 Typical examples

Three legged intersection

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 12

 Four legged intersection

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 13

 Conflict area at intersections

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 14

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 15
 Types of intersection controls
• There are six principal ways of controlling traffic
at intersections, depending on the type of
intersection and the volume of traffic in each.
1. No control
2. Channelization
3. Yield or stop sign
4. Roundabouts
5. Manual control
6. Traffic signals
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 16
 Guidelines for adopting any particular type of
intersection control, in the form of warrants.
• Stop sign

Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the

following conditions:
• Intersection of a less important road with a main road
• Intersection of a city street with a state highway
• Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area.
• Unsignalized intersection where a combination of
high speed and serious accident record indicated a
need for control by the stop sign.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 17
• Yield sign

Yield signs are stabilized as follows:

• On a minor road at the entrance to an
intersection
• On the entrance ramp to an expressway,
where an adequate acceleration lane is not
provided.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 18
 Rotaries and Roundabouts:
Rotary intersections or roundabouts are
special form of at-grade intersections laid out
for the movement of traffic in one direction
around a central traffic island.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 19

• Essentially all the major conflicts at an
intersection namely the collision between
through and right-turn movements are
converted into milder conflicts namely merging
and diverging.
• The vehicles entering the rotary are gently
forced to move in a clockwise direction in
orderly fashion. They then weave out of the
rotary to the desired direction.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 20
 Rotary Intersection

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 21

 Advantages and disadvantages of Rotary
Advantages of rotary intersection:
1. Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus
eliminating severe conflicts between crossing movements.
2. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the
speed and continue to move at slower speed. Thus, none of the
vehicles need to be stopped,unlike in a signalized intersection.
3. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe
conflicts, accidents and their severity are much less in rotaries.
4. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control
by police or traffic signals.
5. They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with
irregular geometry, or intersections with more than three or four
approaches.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 22

Specific limitations for rotaries:
• All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate
the intersection. Therefore, the cumulative delay will
be much higher than channelized intersection.
• Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles
are forced to reduce their speed.
• Rotaries require large area of relatively flat land
making them costly at urban areas.
• The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They
accelerate and exit the rotary at relatively high speed.
Therefore, they are not suitable when there are high
pedestrian movements.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 23
Guidelines for the selection of rotaries
• Because of the above limitation, rotaries are not
suitable for every location. There are few guidelines
that help in deciding the suitability of a rotary. They
are listed below.
1. Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering
from all the four approaches are relatively equal.
2. A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can
be considered as the upper limiting case and a
volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 24

3. A rotary is very beneficial when the
proportion of the right-turn traffic is very
high; typically if it is more than 30 percent.
4. Rotaries are suitable when there are more
than four approaches or if there is no
separate lanes available for right-turn traffic.
5. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection
geometry is complex

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 25

 Traffic operations in a rotary
As noted earlier, the traffic operations at a rotary are three;
diverging, merging and weaving. All the other conflicts are
converted into these three less severe conflicts.
• Diverging: It is a traffic operation when the vehicles moving
in one direction is separated into different streams
according to their destinations.
• Merging: Merging is the opposite of diverging. Merging is
referred to as the process of joining the traffic coming from
different approaches and going to a common destination
into a single stream.
• Weaving:  Weaving is the combined movement of both
merging and diverging movements in the same direction.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 26

 Warrants for traffic control signal system
• IRC recommended:
• Warranty I: Minimum vehicular volume
Min. 650 veh/hr on a major street in a single lane
800 veh/hr on two or more lanes
Min 200 veh/hr on a minor street in a single lane
250 veh/hr on a two or more lanes

But when 85th percentile speed = 60kmph or it is within

built up areas, only 70% of the above warranty is needed.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 27

• Warranty II: Interruption of continuous traffic
Interruption of continuous traffic on major
street with 1000-1200veh/hr and there is
delay or hazard to traffic on minor street with
a traffic of 100-150 veh/hr.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 28

• Warranty III: Minimum pedestrian volume
• If on the major street, 600 veh/hr or more enter
the intersection (both approaches) OR where
there is a raised median island 1.2m or more in
width, 1000veh/hr or more (both direction) enter
the intersection; and in the above intersection if
150 or more pedestrians cross the major street.
• If 85th percentile speed exceeds 60kmph, 70% of
above is sufficient.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 29
• Warranty IV: Accident experience
-If the 5 or more reported accidents involving
personal injury or property damage (IRs. 2000 or
more);
• -Adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with
satisfactory observance and enforcement have
failed to reduce the accident rate;
• -The signal installation will not seriously disrupt
traffic flow.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 30
Design of isolated fixed time signal
• General principles of signal design:
1. Stop time or red phase R1 of a signal is the
sum of GO and Clearance interval (Green and
Amber phase) for the cross flow at two phase
signal.
R 1=G2+A2
• During this interval, the pedestrian crossing
time may also be incorporated for the road.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 31

2. Towards the end of Red phase, there may be a
short duration when the amber lights are put
on along with red light signal in order to
indicate “get set to go”. (Red-Amber or Initial
Amber)

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 32

3. Clearance time or clearance Amber phase is
provided just after the Green phase, before the
Red phase, to fulfill two requirements:
– Stopping time for approaching vehicle to stop at
stop line.
– Clearance time for the vehicle which is approaching
the stop line at legal speed, allowing sufficient time
for the vehicle to cross the intersection area. Usually
2-4 sec would be suitable for the Amber phase.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 33

4. Green time is decided based on the approach
volume during peak hour.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 34

 Design Method

1. Trial cycle method

2. Approximate method
3. Webster’s method

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 35

 Trial Cycle Method
• The 15 minute traffic counts n1 and n2 on road
1 and 2 are noted during the design peak hour
flow.
• Some suitable trial cycle Ci second is assumed
and the number of the assumed cycles in the
15 minute;

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 36

• Assuming the average time headway 2.5 sec
the Green time periods for road 1 and 2 are
respectively G1 and G2 are;

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 37

• A1 and A2 Amber periods (3-4 sec)
• The cycle length C’1=G1+G2+A1+A2
• If the calculated cycle length C’1 works out to
be equal to the assumed cycle length C1, the
cycle length is accepted as the design cycle.
• Otherwise the trials are repeated till the trial
cycle length works out equal to the calculated
value.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 38
• Example:
• The 15 minute traffic counts on cross roads 1
and 2 during peak hour are observed as 194
and 134 vehicles per lane respectively. If the
amber times required are 2 seconds for two
roads, design the signal timing by trial cycle
method. Assume average time headway of 2.5
seconds during green phase. (C=45sec)

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 39

 Approximate Method (Two
phase signal with pedestrian)
Design procedure:
1. The amber periods may be taken as 2,3 and 4
seconds for low, medium and fast approach
speeds.
2. Pedestrian walking speed of 1.2m per second
is assumed and the clearance for pedestrian
time is calculated.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 40

3. Minimum red time of traffic signal is taken as
pedestrian clearance time for crossing PLUS
initial interval for pedestrians to start crossing.
• Rmin =G pedestrian + initial interval for
pedestrians to cross the road
= G ped + initial Walk period
=Green time +Amber time for cross road

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 41

4. The minimum green time is calculated based
on pedestrian criterion,
G min= Pedestrian clearance time plus an initial
interval when pedestrians may start to
cross the road for cross road MINUS Amber
period

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 42

• With pedestrian signal the initial interval is the
WALK period; not less than 7 sec.
• Where no pedestrian signal, minimum period
of five seconds is used as initial interval

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 43

• The actual green time is increased based on
the ratio of approach volume for the heaviest
traffic volume.
• The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for
the next higher 5 sec. interval.
• The extra time is then distributed to green
timings in proportion to the approaching
volumes of traffic.

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 44

• Example:
• An isolated signal with pedestrians indication
is to be installed on a right angled intersection
with road A, 18m wide and road B, 12m wide.
The heaviest volume per hour for each lane of
road A and B are 275 and 225 respectively. The
approach speeds are 55 and 40 kmph for road
A and B respectively. Design the timing of
traffic and pedestrian signals
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 45
 Webster’s Method
• Optimum signal cycle C0 corresponding to
least total delay to the vehicles at the
signalized intersection is determined. This is a
rational approach

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 46

1. The saturation flow S per unit time on each approach is
found.
2. The normal flow q on each approach during design hour is
found.
3. The ratio y1=q1/S1 and y2=q2/S2 are determined
-in mixed traffic, it is necessary to convert all the normal and
saturation flow values in PCU
-In the absence of field data, saturation flow is estimated
assuming f=525W
w-width of approach lane or 160PCU per 0.3m approach
width.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 47
4. The optimum cycle

• L=total lost time for cycle, sec

• L=2n+R (n-number of phase, R all red time)

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 48

 Total cycle time = G1+G2+R+A1+A2

08/23/2022 Road Intersection 49

• Example
• The average normal flow of traffic on cross
roads A and B during design period are 400
and 250 PCU per hour, the saturation flow
values on these roads are estimated as 1250
and 100 PCU per hour respectively. The all red
time required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec.
Design two phase traffic signal by Webster’s
method.
08/23/2022 Road Intersection 50