FEED FORMULATION

FEED FORMULATION

SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the modular unit, the participants will be able to:

1. Understand the steps required in formulating feeds.

2. Understand the different methods used in formulating feeds.

3. Understand about the different feed ingredients used for formulating pig feeds.

4. Formulate feeds using available feed ingredients.

1
 FEED FORMULATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

Specific Learning Objectives ................................................................. 3

Introduction ................................................................................................ 4

Chapter 1 Basics of Nutrition

Nutrients ......................................................................................... 5
1.1 Energy .................................................................... 6
1.2 Proteins and Amino Acids ..................................... 8
1.3 Minerals .................................................................. 9
1.4 Vitamins ................................................................. 11
1.5 Water .................................................................... 13

Anti-nutritional Factors and Contaminants ...................................... 13

Feed Additives
1. Nutritive feed additives ......................................... 18
2. Non-nutritive feed additives .................................. 18

Chapter 2 Feed Formulation

Steps in Feed Formulation ................................................ 22

Methods of Feed Formulation
1. Pearson Square Method ................................ 23
2. Trial and Error Method .................................... 25
ITCPH Feed Formulation Program .................................. 27

Chapter 3 Feed Ingredients for Pigs

Cereals and Milling by-products .......................................... 34

Root Crops and other Energy Sources ........................... 36
Animal Protein Sources .................................................. 38
Plant Protein Sources ..................................................... 39
Alternatives to Antibiotics ............................................................ 41

Self Evaluation Test ................................................................................. 43

List of Tables:
Analysis of some feedstuffs ........................................................... 28
Example of nutrient recommendations for pigs ............................. 31
Suggested maximum inclusion rates ............................................. 32

2
 FEED FORMULATION

INTRODUCTION

The efficient production of pigs depends on the matching of the nutrient requirement of
pigs with the available feed supply. This means using feedstuffs that complement one
another to provide all the nutrients in the proper amounts at the lowest cost.

There are different methods of feed formulation, but the process involved are almost
similar. This booklet in Feed Formulation contains 3 chapters. Chapter 1 will deal on the
basic nutrients. Chapter 2 outlines the steps in formulating feeds and Chapter 3 is the list
of some commonly used feed ingredients.

It is hoped that after this module , you will be able to understand and follow the steps in
formulating feeds.

3
 FEED FORMULATION

Chapter 1 BASICS OF NUTRITION

Feed represents 60 to 80 percent of the total cost of commercial pig production.

Therefore feed efficiency in pork production is a key to profit. It is important that
economical but well balanced feeds are provided during all phases of the pigs life.
Optimizing profit is associated with high average daily gain in pigs and the lowering of the
feed cost.

Pigs vary considerably in their ability to make the best use of different diets and raw
materials. Moreover feed ingredients vary widely in their nutrient make-up. A thorough
knowledge of the feeding requirements of pigs and the characteristics of the raw
materials used in pig feeding is needed if one wants to formulate practical rations.

Pigs can only perform economically and profitably if it consumes on a daily basis the
appropriate amount of energy, amino acids, vitamins and minerals.

NUTRIENTS

A nutrient is a chemical substance supplied by a diet for which a pig has a specific
requirement. It performs a specific function in the body and the absence or deficiency of it
will result in reduced productivity, health problems and possibly death.

Feed can only be used efficiently if the nutrients in it are balanced to satisfy the animals
specific needs. Pigs have different nutrient requirements according to their age, weight,
rate of growth and type of productivity required of them.

Essential Nutrients in Pig Diet

AMINO ACIDS MINERALS VITAMINS OTHERS

Arginine Macro Vitamin A Carbohydrates

Histidine Calcium Vitamin D Fats
Isoleucine Chloride Vitamin E Water
Leucine Magnesium Vitamin C
Lysine Phosphorus Biotin
Methionine Potassium Choline
Phenylalanine Sodium Folic acid
Threonine Sulfur Vitamin K
Tryptophan Niacin
Valine Micro Panthothenic acid
Copper Pyridoxine
Iodine Riboflavin
Iron Thiamine
Manganese Vitamin B 12
Selenium
Zinc

4
 FEED FORMULATION

1.1 ENERGY SOURCES

Energy is required for the maintenance of body tissues and for the formation of new
tissues. Small amounts of energy are stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Most
of the energy in the body is stored as fat.

Energy requirements are expressed as kilocalories (kcal), kilocalories (Kcal), joule (J),
kilojoule (KJ) or megajoule (MJ) digestible energy (DE) of metabolizable energy (ME) .

1 calorie = 4.184 Joule

1 Kcal = 4.184 KJ

Pigs eat to meet their energy requirements when offered feed on a free choice basis.,
therefore, the energy concentration of a feed will affect feed intake and necessitate re-
evaluation of the feed to ensure that the other nutrients are maintained to meet daily
nutrient requirements at a given intake.

Factors Affecting the Energy Content of a Feedstuff

Soluble carbohydrate content

Fat content
Fiber content
Particle size

Soluble carbohydrates such like starch and sugar increase the energy level of a
feedstuff.

Fat content A high fat content increases the energy content of the feedstuff.

Fiber level in the feed Only a very small amount of fiber digestion takes place in the
pig. Fiber reduces energy digestibility of a feed.

High Fiber Lower Digestible Energy

Particle size By reducing the particle size, the surface area is increased. This allows the
feed particles to have greater contact with digestive enzymes thereby improving the
digestibility of the feedstuff.

For pig feed, particle size should be 700 microns for grower-finishing and sow diets and
900 microns for starter diets.

Incidence of stomach ulcers are higher when feed id too fine.

5
 FEED FORMULATION

Smaller Particle Size Increased Feed Digestion

Main Sources of Energy in Pig Diet:

Carbohydrates provides the largest source of energy in a pigs diet. They

include simple sugars, starches and fiber. The sugars and starches are the main
source of energy for monogastrics (pigs and poultry) because they are highly
digestible, while fiber is very difficult to digest (for monogastrics) therefore a poor
source of energy.

Young fast growing pigs should receive rations with low fiber content.

Fats Fat provides a very concentrated source of energy. It also provides

essential fatty acids - linoleic, alpha linolenic and arachidonic acids.

Feed fat comes in two forms oil and tallow. Oil is in liquid form at room temperature
because of its high unsaturated fatty acids content. Tallow is solid at room temperature
because of its high content of saturated fatty acids.

Unsaturated fatty acids are more easily digestible than saturated.

The addition of fats to feeds increases energy content, enhances palatability and reduce
dustiness of feeds.

Common Energy Sources:

Corn
Rice, Rice bran
Cassava dried meal or pellets
Wheat, wheat bran, wheat pollard
Sorghum
Bakery waste
Sugar
Animal fats and vegetables oil

1.2 PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Protein is essential for the growth and maintenance of organs and muscle tissue.
Proteins are formed from amino acids that are chemically joined to form a chain that
makes up the muscle fibers.

A pigs performance depends upon adequate levels of essential amino acids, and on the
balance between these amino acids. A shortage of one essential amino acid will cause
the pig to grow to the level determined by that amino acid, this is called limiting amino
acid.

Synthetic amino acids are available to assist in balancing the amino acids in pigs diet.

6
 FEED FORMULATION

Adequate levels of protein and amino acids should be included in the diet to meet the
pigs requirement.

Protein digestibility should also be considered when formulating pig feed. Some feed
ingredients have high crude protein content but its digestibility is low. Protein digestibility
is influenced by:

Type of protein
Level of fiber
Fineness of grind
Heat treatment
Protease inhibitors

For optimum growth and performance, adequate levels of protein

and amino acids should be included in the pigs diet

Common Sources of Protein

Fish meal
Skim milk
Whey
Blood meal
Meat and bone meal
Shrimp meal
Soybean meal, full fat soya
Copra meal
Ipil-ipil leaf meal

1.3 MINERALS

The pig requires at least 14 minerals that are essential for :

Formation of bones and teeth

Components of many enzymes
Components of proteins, organs and blood
Muscle and nerve function
Maintaining metabolic processes in the body
Maintaining osmotic balance

7
 FEED FORMULATION

Macro Minerals Micro Minerals

* Calcium * Iron
* Phosphorus * Zinc
* Sulfur * Copper
* Sodium * Manganese
* Chlorine * Iodine
* Potassium * Selenium
* Magnesium * Cobalt

Suggested Total Mineral Levels in Pig Diets

Mineral Creep Starter Grower Finisher Breeder Lactating

Calcium % 0.95 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.9

Phosphorus % 0.75 0.65 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7

Salt % 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5

Zinc (ppm) 120 120 100 100 120 120

Copper (ppm) 125 125 20 20 20 20

Iodine (ppm) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

Iron (ppm) 150 150 150 150 150 150

Selenium (ppm) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Source: Jaikaran, S, Alberta Agriculture

8
 FEED FORMULATION

1.3.1 Calcium and Phosphorus

About 70 % of the mineral in the body are calcium and phosphorus. They are required
for normal bone development, muscle contraction and energy utilization.

Calcium and phosphorus should not only be present in the right level but should have the
correct ratio balance.

Calcium: Phosphorus
Ideal : 1.2 : 1
Range: 1 : 1 to 1.5 : 1

1.3.2 Salt

Salt is the source of sodium and chlorine that are both essential for normal body
functions. A deficiency of salt can result in loss of appetite and weight.

If your water contains high level of salt lessen the amount of salt in the feed.

1.3.3 Zinc

Zinc is an integral part of many enzymes in the body. It is necessary for sexual maturity in
the male and reproductive functions of the female. It is also essential for the proper
functioning of organs such as the pancreas and for maintaining skin and hoof condition.

Zinc deficiency causes parakeratosis, a skin condition that looks like mange. Studies
have shown that reduced postweaning scouring and increased weight gain resulted
when starting diet was supplemented with 3,000 ppm of zinc from zinc oxide for 14 days
(Poulsen, 1989).

1.3.4 Iron

Iron is needed for the formation of hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin carries
oxygen to various parts of the body. A deficiency of iron causes anemia in young pigs
and can also reduce feed efficiency and growth rate.

1.3.5 Copper

Copper is essential for the enzyme system as well as for the synthesis of hemoglobin.
Copper at the level of 125 ppm in growing pig ration is considered to have growth
promoting properties.

1.3.6 Selenium

Selenium and Vitamin E are needed to perform oxidative functions in the body in order to
prevent tissue and organ muscle degeneration. Selenium has also been shown to be
important for sperm development and maturation.

9
 FEED FORMULATION

Selenium deficiency can result to:

Mulberry heart disease s occurs as sudden death in pigs, usually those that are
doing very well. Occasionally death is preceded by muscular trembling, labored
breathing and high temperature.
Muscular dystrophy - pigs appear to be stiff or lame, due to muscle
degeneration

1.3.7 Chromium

Chromium is a trace mineral that has recently become interesting for pig rations. Dietary
chromium in the form of chromium tripiconilate was shown to improve carcass leanness
in finishing pigs.

Lindemann et al., 1994 showed that chromium supplementation at 200 ppb as chromium
piconilate throughout the growing-finishing phase and the reproductive cycle increased
litter size in excess of two pigs per litter.

1.4 VITAMINS

Vitamins are required in small amounts, but they serve essential functions in maintaining
normal growth and reproduction.

Even though some of theses vitamins can be manufactured by the pigs body and some
are present in feed ingredients, it is a common procedure to supply the full daily
requirement of all in a vitamin premix.

Water Soluble Vitamins

Thiamine
Riboflavin (B2) Fat soluble Vitamins
Niacin
Pantothenic Acid Vitamin A
Pyridoxine (B6) Vitamin D
Choline Vitamin E
Myo-inositol Vitamin K
Biotin
Folacin
P-amino benzoic acid
B12
Vitamin C

10
 FEED FORMULATION

1.4.1 Vitamin A

This vitamin is essential in many body functions, particularly vision and reproduction.

Vitamin A deficiency symptoms in growing pigs are poor coordination and various eye
abnormalities. For sows the symptoms are problem with breeding, dead, weak or
deformed piglets. Deficiency in boars result in sterility.

1.4.2 Vitamin D

Vitamin D plays a vital role in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus and in the
formation of bones.

Most feedstuffs are almost devoid of vitamin D.

Deficiency symptoms in young pigs include rickets, stiffness, enlargement of the joints
and loss of appetite. In older pigs to boned tend to fracture easily. and sows give birth to
weak or dead piglets.

1.4.3 Vitamin E
Vitamin E is required for disease resistance and normal reproduction and growth. Vitamin
E and Selenium work together for maintaining cell wall structure and muscle integrity.

Vitamin E deficiency may cause symptoms similar to selenium deficiency.

1.4.4 Vitamin B
The B vitamins are not stored in the body and must be supplemented in the diet.
Essential to all pig diets are riboflavin (B2), Niacin, pantothenic acid B12, choline and
biotin. Under stressful conditions folic acid, thiamine, pyridoxine and vitamin C have been
used to minimize the effects.

B vitamins are necessary for good health, efficient feed utilization, rapid growth, normal
skin and feet condition and good reproduction.

Choline is required for proper nerve function, protein synthesis and structural
development. Pig can synthesize choline but as a safety factor, supplemental choline is
recommended. Choline in gestating ration results to increase in live pigs born and
weaned when added at the rate of 500 grams per ton For growing finishing pigs the
recommendation is 100 grams per ton.

Biotin and Folic acid - Biotin has been associated with proper foot development; a
dosage of 200 milligram per ton is recommended for gestating and lactating rations.
Folic acid is essential in assuring embryo survival. The addition of 1.5 grams per ton
may increase the number of pigs born alive.

11
 FEED FORMULATION

1.5 WATER

Water is the most essential but often neglected nutrient.

Depriving pigs of a clean , free choice water source Feed intake of pigs are adversely
affected by water restriction resulting to reduced performance. Pigs require about 2 to 5
liters of water per kilogram of dry feed.

The quality of water is similarly important.

ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
and CONTAMINANTS

Anti-nutritional factors are compounds or elements that either :

Adversely affects the digestion, absorption or utilization of a nutrient.

Increase the nutrient requirement

1. MYCOTOXIN

1.1. Aflatoxin:

A toxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. Paraciticus. These molds grow in

grains, oil seeds and other feed that have been stored with high moisture
content for a long period. Aflatoxin levels are normally reported in parts per
billion (ppb).

B1
TYPES of
B2
AFLATOXIN G1
G2

Aflatoxin is a potent carcinogen. Aflatoxin B1 is the most potent. Effects of

aflatoxin vary with dose, duration of exposure and nutritional status of the
animal.

The clinical sign of aflatoxicosis reduced feed intake, increased FCR, reduced
weight gain, immunosuppression and systemic hemorrhages. Prolonged
exposure to low levels of aflatoxin results in liver tumors. Aflatoxin can also be
transferred in uterus from the sow to the fetus and affect the new born piglets.

Young animals in general are more susceptible.

12
 FEED FORMULATION

1.2 Ochratoxin

A toxin produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium viridicatum. This toxin has
been detected in corn, beans and peanuts.

* Kidney lesions

Effects of Ochratoxin
* Decreased feed conversion

* Decreased growth rate

* Immunosuppression

1.3. Zearalenone :

Zearalenone is an estrogenic compound produced by Fusarium species. It is

commonly found in corn.

The compound is quite toxic with 1 to 5 ppm sufficient to cause physiological

responses.

Swelling and edema of the vulva
Effects of Failure to exhibit heat
Zearalenone Infertility
Pseudopregnancy
Low litter weight
Stillbirth
Vaginal and rectal prolapse
Vaginal and rectal prolapse
Abortion
Small litter size
Splaylegged piglets
Atrophy of the male reproductive
organs
Reduced rate and efficiency of growth

13
 FEED FORMULATION

1.4. T-2 Toxin

This toxin is produced by fusarium species.

Effects of T-2 Toxin

* Diarrhea
* Enteritis
* Hemorrhage
* Reduced feed intake
* Total feed refusal
* Infertility in sows
* Immunosuppression

1.5. Vomitoxin

This mycotoxin is produced by Fusarium graminearium and causes : Dietary

levels of 3.6 ppm result in a 20 percent reduction in feed intake and levels of 40
ppm result in 90 percent decrease.

Feed intake reduction

Feed refusal
Emetic syndrome

Maximum Allowable Levels of Mycotoxins

Production Phase Aflatoxin (ppb) Vomitoxin (ppm) Zearalenone (ppm)

Breeding Herd 100 1.0 2.0

Nursery Pigs 20 1.0 1.0

Grower Pigs 50 - 100 1.0 1.0

Finisher Pigs 200 1.0 3.0

Boars 100 1.0 3.0

Source: Swine Nutrition Guide, Ohio State University

14
 FEED FORMULATION

2. TANNIN

Present in sorghum and makes it less palatable. It reduces digestibility of

proteins and carbohydrates.

Tannin can be reduced by grinding and chemical treatment (soaking in 1 %

NaOH).

3. TRYPSIN INHIBITOR

Present in all species of beans. It binds the enzyme trypsin and inhibits proper
protein digestion. Heat treatment can destroy trypsin inhibitor.

4. LECTIN

Present in legume seeds and cereal grains. They bind to specific sugar groups
and may cause decreased digestibility of proteins and absorption of sugars.
Heat treatment can minimize toxicity.

5. SOYIN

Soyin is present in soybeans. Toasting will destroy soyin.

Soyin lowers soybean palatability

6. GOSSYPOL

Gossypol is a toxic substance present in cotton seed. It has an inhibiting effect

on digestive enzymes.

7. LINAMARIN (Cyanogen)

Present in cassava and linseed. After chemical reaction, it is transformed into

prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid - HCN).

HCN poisoning leads to :

* Increased respiration
* Accelerated pulse
* Failure to react to stimuli
* Spasmodic muscular movements

15
 FEED FORMULATION

Boiling or drying reduces or destroys HCN and linamarin.

Maximum level: 50 ppm in all rations

8. MIMOSINE GLUCOSIDE

A substance from Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-ipil), a legume tree common in

tropical and subtropical countries.

High consumption of sows Fetal death

results to : Deformed limbs of surviving fetuses

16
 FEED FORMULATION

FEED ADDITIVES

Feed additives are compounds that are artificially added to the feed. There are two
groups of additives :

1. NUTRITIVE FEED ADDITIVES 2. NON-NUTRITIVE FEED ADDITIVES

Antibiotics
Vitamins Anthelmintics
Minerals Antimicrobials
Synthetic amino Probiotics
Growth promotants
acids
Binders
Acidifiers
Mold inhibitors
Deodorizers
Enzymes
Flavors
EMULSIFIERS
Anti-oxidants
Coccidiotats

1. NUTRITIVE FEED ADDITIVES

1.1 Vitamins In case the vitamins are not sufficiently present in the raw
materials used for the feed, they should be added artificially. In compound
feed, vitamins and mineral premix should always be included to assure optimal
performance.

1.2 Minerals Feeds composed of a variety of ingredients especially animal

products and dried green fodder contains quite much minerals, but sometimes
there is a need to add trace elements, Calcium and phosphorus.

1.3. Synthetic amino acids For pigs, the quantity and proportion of the amino
acids in the feeds are of great importance. The feed should be of high
Biological Value (BV). To increase the BV, synthetic amino acids can be added
like L-Lysine, DL-methionine, DL-tryptophan or L-threonine.

2. NON-NUTRITIVE FEED ADDITIVES

These additives have been used to improve growth rate and feed efficiency and
to control diseases.

17
 FEED FORMULATION

2.1 Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Agents. Antibiotics are substances

produced by microorganisms which kill or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms,
while antimicrobial agents are synthetic substances which kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganism.

These compounds, when added to pig diets in low levels, have been shown to:

improve animal growth

improve feed utilization
reduce mortality and morbidity
improve reproductive performance
prevent diseases

At higher concentrations (therapeutic dose), these agents are used to cure diseases.

Examples: Zn-bacitracin, Spiramycin, Tylosin,

sulfonamides, nitrofurans

2.2 Anti-oxidants improve the keeping qualities of feeds by preventing vitamins

and fats from oxidation. Oxidation results in destruction of vitamins and
rancidity of fats.

Examples: Butylated Hydroxy Toluene (BHT)

Tocopherol
Ethoxyquine

2.3 Emulsifiers keep fats homogenous (i.e., dissolved milk powder for young
piglets. Emulsifiers act also in the intestinal tract as a
supplement to bile.

Examples: Lecithin, Carboxy-methyl-cellulose (CMC)

2.4 Acidifiers are added to the feeds of weaned and growing pigs to increase the
acidity of the stomach and thereby improving protein digestion. In addition,
maintaining stomach acidity encourages the proliferation of acid-producing
bacteria that improve the health and functioning of the digestive system.

Examples: Citric acid, formic acid, fumaric acid, propionic acid

18
 FEED FORMULATION

2.5 Anthelmintic or dewormers maybe added to feed for a limited period to kill
worm and worm eggs. This type of deworming program usually removes the
immediate worm burden but needs to be repeated for improved control.

Continuous feeding of some anthelmintic products will block development of

parasites during the specified feeding period.

2.6 Microbial Supplements or Probiotics are live microbial products mainly yeast
and bacteria. It is given to pigs with the purpose of establishing a population of
desirable microflora within the intestine at the expense of disease producing
organisms such as E. Coli. Other possible benefits include reduction in
intestinal pH and a reduction in toxic amines. The effect in young pigs is an
improvement in daily gain and feed efficiency.

The most common microorganisms are Lactobacillus species, Bacillus subtilis

and Streptococcus faecium and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisias).

2.7 Flavors synthetic flavors are added to feed to improve palatability and or to
mask off-flavors or off-odors in feed.

The use of garlic in prestarter feeds have been tested and the result showed that it
increase the feed intake. In addition to the increase in feed intake, there were also
fewer flies in the house. This is due to a compound called allicin excreted in the pigs
urine. It was explained that a volatile substance, alliin in garlic bulbs is converted
enzymatically to allicin when the bulbs are crushed. Excreted in urine and carried to
manure pit, the allicin deters adult flies from breeding on the slurry.

2.8 Enzymes are added to feeds to improve the digestibility of complex

carbohydrates and proteins. Addition of enzymes will be most effective in newly
weaned pigs when digestive tract is still maturing and enzymes are produced in less
adequate quantities.

Another enzyme, phytase can be added to all pig feeds to assist in the digestion of
phosphorus from plant sources. In this way phosphorus supplementation can be
lessen and the release of phosphorus in the environment can be minimized.

2.9 Pellet Binders These products hold ingredients together. Reduce losses
during and after pelleting and resist dispersing of water.

2.10 Flow Agents these products prevent caking and improve the flow
characteristics of some ingredients. An example is hydrated sodium calcium
aluminosilicate.

19
 FEED FORMULATION

2.11 Mineral Supplements - high levels of dietary copper (100 to 250 ppm as
copper sulfate) have been shown to stimulate growth rate, feed intake and efficiency of
feed utilization in pigs especially during the post-weaning and the early growth phase.
For sows it was found to increase pig weaning weights

High levels of zinc (3,000 ppm from zinc oxide) stimulate feed intake and growth rate in
young pigs.

2.12 Mold inhibitors These products prevent growth of molds.

Example: Propionic acid

Formic acid

2.13 Toxin binders theses products bind toxins present in the feed
ingredients/feed.

2.14 Deodorizer To minimize odor.

NOTES ON SUPPLEMENTS AND PREMIXES

Micropremixes can be made with varying levels of potency

Vitamins and mineral premix can be made-up separately to slow

deterioration of vitamins

Choline should be added directly to the complete feed as it tends to

oxidize other vitamins

As a general rule, variations from recommended dosages should not

exceed 15 % either way., otherwise shortage of other nutrients
may occur

20
 FEED FORMULATION

Chapter 2
FEED FORMULATION

The efficiency of pork production depends on the matching of the pig to the available
feed supply. This means using feedtuffs that supplement one another in providing all
the nutrients in the proper amounts and proportion at the lowest economical cost.

Commercial feed manufacturers usually formulate on a least cost basis and thus the
proper proportion of the ingredients in their feeds can change depending upon the
prices of the ingredients.

STEPS IN FEED FORMULATION

1. Identify the class of pigs to be fed. Pigs are grouped into classes according to
their dietary requirements; this includes:

Prestarter
Starter
Grower
Finisher
Dry and Pregnant Sows
Lactating Sows
Gilts
Boars

2. Determine the nutrient allowances for that class. The required levels of
nutrients for all classes of pigs are published in different books such as the "
Nutrient Requirement of Swine " by the National Research Council.

3. Determine the available ingredients. Several factors should be considered in

the selection of feed ingredients:

Available feed ingredients

Cost of feed ingredients
Nutrient content
Anti-nutritional factors and
contaminants
Maximum and minimum levels

21
 FEED FORMULATION

4. Calculation of ration.

METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION

I. PEARSON SQUARE METHOD

The pearson square method is a simple and easy method of determining the
correct proportion of two feed ingredients to obtain a desired level of nutrient.

Limitations:

Only one nutrient can be considered at a time.

Only two ingredients can be used at a time.

This method can only be used when one ingredient has a higher nutritional
value (nutrient being considered) and the other one has a lower value
than the desired level.

The safe maximum percentage of the ingredients can not be followed.

Example of Pearson Square Method:

Yellow corn (Y C) - CP % is 8.8 %

Soybean meal (SBM) - CP % is 45.8 %

Formulate a grower feed with 16 % CP.

STEPS:

1. Draw a square and write the desired protein percentage at the center.

16

2. Write the ingredients and their protein % on the lower and the upper left hand
corners.

22
 FEED FORMULATION

Yellow corn 8.8

16

Soybean meal 45.8

3. Subtract diagonally the lower from the higher value. Write the answers at the
opposite corner of the square.

Yellow corn 8.8 29.8 Yellow corn

16

Soybean meal 45.8 7.2 Soybean meal

4. The mixture will be 29.8 parts yellow corn and 7. 2 parts soybean meal.

5. This can be changed into percentage.

% Yellow corn = 29.8

x 100 = 80.5 %
37.0

% Soybean meal = 7.2

x 100 = 19.5 %
37.0

or soybean meal = 100 % - 80.5 % = 19.5 %

6. The mixture will be 80.5 % yellow corn and 19.5 % soybean meal.

23
 FEED FORMULATION

II. TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD

This method of feed formulation is time consuming, however all the nutrients are
considered and a variety of ingredients can be used.

Example of a trial and error method:

CALCULATION OF COMPLETE DRY RATIONS

In commercial feed mills, calculation of rations is done by computer through the

method of "linear programming." In this course, we will learn a more simple method
that can be done without the help of the computer. This method can be used for
smaller feed mills, individual farmers, cooperatives, etc.

The following steps are done:

1. Make a list of all the available ingredients including the following data:

* Price per kg. of ingredient

* Energy in kcal (DE or ME)
* % Crude protein (CP)
* % Crude fiber (CF)
* % Ether extract (EE)
* % Lysine (Lys)
* % Methionine + cystine (M+C)
* % Calcium (Ca
* % Phosphorus (P)

A list of ingredients with their analysis is given in Table 1.

NOTE: All these are just analysis of samples. If more specific information is available,
this should be used instead.

2. Calculate: a. The price of 1000 Kcal of DE

b. The price per percent CP

3. Set the requirements for the compound feeds to be made. (See Table 2).

NOTE: These requirements are to be adjusted under different situations and according
to the type or breed of pigs.

24
 FEED FORMULATION

STEPS FOR THE TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD

1. Reserve 2% for the addition of mineral and vitamin premix.

2. Take up 30 % ingredient/ s that are:

a. Higher in DE than the required optimum level of the ration to be

formulated.

b. Take those which have the lowest price per 1000 DE.

c. Do not include more than the safe maximum percentage for each
ingredient.

d. Include ingredient/s you want to take up a minimum percentage.

3. Take up 18 % ingredient/ s that are:

a. Higher in percentage CP than the required minimum level of the ration

to be formulated.

b. Include ingredient/ s of which you want to take up a minimum

percentage.

c. Take those which have the lowest price per percentage CP.

d. Do not exceed the safe maximum percentage for each ingredient.

4. Having 50 % of the ration, add all nutrients and compare them with the required
level. Start building further step by step by adding 10% at a time. Select
ingredients that are balancing the feed most and which are the cheapest. Do
the same procedure for the 60 %, 70 % and 80 %.

For the last 10 % you can use "Pearson Square."

NOTE: If you take up percentages of ingredients higher than their safe maximum, the
ration must be considered as "experimental."

25
 FEED FORMULATION

Table 1 Analysis of Some Feedstuffs

Animal Protein Sources DM DE Pigs CP CF EE Lys M&C Ca P

% kcal/kg % % % % % % %
.
Blood meal 93.0 2,980 86.00 1.00 1.2 7.44 2.08 0.41 0.30

Fish meal 89.0 2,835 53.40 1.70 4.40 5.31 2.18 6.55 3.97

Fish meal 90.0 2,959 61.20 0.90 2.80 4.95 2.50 3.80 2.38

Fish meal 89.0 2,541 50.00 0.70 2.40 2.40 1.30 7.60 3.40

Meat and bone meal 94.0 2,540 50.90 2.40 9.70 2.89 1.14 9.40 4.58

Meat meal 93.0 2,805 55.60 2.30 8.70 3.09 1.41 8.27 4.10

Poultry viscera 93.0 3,086 56.50 2.70 22.30 2.89 1.97 3.60 1.86

Feathermeal, poultry 91.0 2,728 85.40 3.20 2.40 1.78 4.34 0.41 0.49

Shrimp meal 87.0 2,500 56.00 5.60 6.20 2.08 1.36 4.65 1.75

Skimmed milk powder 94.0 3,845 33.30 0.20 1.10 2.54 1.35 1.28 1.20

Synthetic Amino Acids

DL - Methionine 98.0 55.00 98.50

L-Lysine 98.0 93.50 98.00

Plant Protein Sources

Brewer's grains 92.0 2,090 27.30 13.10 6.60 0.09 0.81 0.29 0.51

Brewer's yeast 93.0 3,295 43.80 3.00 0.90 3.23 1.18 0.14 1.36

Copra meal, solvent 89.0 3,153 20.60 12.50 4.00 0.52 0.49 0.17 0.59

Copra cake,mechanical 89.0 3,214 19.10 10.80 7.70 0.63 0.57 0.12 0.58

Corn gluten feed 91.0 3,155 23.30 6.80 2.70 0.64 0.80 0.18 0.99

Corn gluten meal 91.0 4,290 42.10 3.80 2.30 0.78 1.73 0.13 0.40

Groundnut meal, solvent 93.0 3,140 49.00 9.90 1.30 1.45 1.17 0.27 0.61

Ipil-ipil leaf meal 90.0 2,000 22.00 12.70 4.10 1.48 0.67 0.35 0.70

Sesame oil meal, mech. 93.0 3,385 45.00 5.60 8.70 1.26 1.96 2.01 1.36

Soybean meal, dehulled 88.2 3,680 48.70 3.40 1.20 2.98 1.41 0.26 0.64

Soybean meal 88.1 3,490 44.00 3.80 2.60 2.89 1.32 0.30 0.65

26
 FEED FORMULATION

DM DE CP CF EE Lys M&C Ca P

% Kcal/kg % % % % % % %

Soybean meal, full fat 90.7 4,035 37.80 4.50 18.70 2.41 1.15 0.26 0.61

Rapeseed meal, solvent 94.0 2,998 35.00 12.40 1.80 2.10 1.10 0.66 1.09

Mineral Sources
Bone meal 91.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 29.82 12.49

Dicalcium phosphate 98.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.30 18.07

Limestone powder 98.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 38.00 0.02

Oyster shell, ground 98.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 35.00 0.00

Tricalcium phosphate 98.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 28.00 13.00

Energy Sources
Cassava meal 93.0 3,725 2.40 3.60 0.80 0.07 0.04 0.11 0.19

Corn, yellow grain 88.0 3,530 8.50 2.30 3.60 0.25 0.40 0.03 0.28

Corn, white grits 87.0 3,296 9.40 1.40 1.60 0.26 0.18 0.03 0.23

Corn bran 86.0 3,169 9.50 3.60 4.90 0.39 0.22 0.05 0.38

Fats, animal 100.0 8,200 100

Fats, vegetable 100.0 9,000 100

Molasses, cane 74.0 2,469 2.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.82 0.08

Rice bran D1 88.0 3,121 11.80 8.80 11.30 0.70 0.44 0.08 1.70

Rice bran D2 88.0 2,708 11.00 10.59 8.00 0.50 0.27 0.08 0.64

Rice, grain 86.0 3,134 9.40 4.30 4.90 0.26 0.19 0.03 0.35

Rice bran w/ binlid 84.0 2,671 10.40 8.50 5.40 0.72 0.51 0.06 0.98

Rice polishing 88.0 3,120 11.80 6.42 11.00 0.51 0.35 0.05 1.34

Sorghum, grain (Milo) 89.0 3,415 8.90 2.20 2.80 0.23 0.29 0.03 0.28

Sweet potato meal 92.0 3,601 2.60 3.30 1.30 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.25

Wheat, grain hard 88.0 3,365 13.50 2.40 2.00 0.34 0.49 0.06 0.37

Wheat, grain soft 89.0 3,400 11.80 2.40 2.10 0.33 0.48 0.05 0.35

Wheat bran 87.0 2,370 15.50 10.00 4.00 0.56 0.43 0.13 1.06

Wheat pollard, hard 89.0 2,858 16.30 9.40 3.50 0.62 0.60 0.19 1.14

Wheat pollard, soft 88.0 3,036 12.10 7.50 3.30 0.60 0.67 0.15 0.85

27
 FEED FORMULATION

DM DE CP CF EE Lys M&C Ca P

% Kcal/kg % % % % % % %

Wheat mill run 90.0 3,233 17.90 6.70 5.30 0.57 0.56 0.12 0.92

Whey powder 93.0 3,215 13.30 0.20 0.80 0.94 0.49 0.86 0.76

Soyhulls 1,887 12.00 36.40 1.90 0.64 0.19 0.45 0.19

Wet Products
Banana with peel 20.0 640 1.00 1.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02

Coconut meat, mature 51.0 3,013 4.40 2.20 30.90 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.10

Gabi (Taro) 30.0 1,080 1.00 1.70 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Garbage/swill 16.0 793 2.40 0.50 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Garbage/swill 17.0 793 2.60 0.50 2.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Garbage/swill 25.6 1,378 4.10 0.70 8.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Garbage/swill 16.6 635 2.90 1.40 3.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Ipil-ipil twigs 31.6 660 9.00 3.50 1.10 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.09

Papaya 7.0 206 1.00 0.80 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.03

Pineapple,pomace wet 12.0 239 0.40 3.40 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.01

Plantain (Saba) 29.4 970 1.20 0.30 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.08

Sweet potato tuber 30.0 1,144 0.90 0.90 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.04

28
 FEED FORMULATION

Table 2 Nutrient Requirements of Pigs

Name of Age / Weight DE CP CF EE Lys M&C Ca P

Feeds Stage of Pig Kcal % % % % % % %

Prestarter 14 days - 60 days 3350 22 5 5 1.15 0.70 0.95 0.75

Starter 60 days - 30 or 35 kg. LW 3250 18 8 5 1.00 0.65 0.80 0.65

Grower 30 or 35 kg. LW - 60 kg. LW 3200 16 10 8 0.85 0.55 0.70 0.60

Finisher 60 kg LW . to market. Wt. 3200 14 10 8 0.65 0.50 0.60 0.50

Breeder Dry and pregnant sows,boars 3000 14 12 10 0.68 0.45 0.90 0.70

Breeder Lactating 3100 15 10 10 0.78 0.50 0.90 0.70

Note : 1. If ADG exceeds 700 grams, increase lys., M&C, Ca and P by 5 % - 7 %

2. Lactating feed can be used for gilts
Legend:
DE - Digestible Energy Lys - Lysine
CP - Crude Protein M&C - Methionine and Cystine
CF - Crude Fiber Ca - Calcium
EE - Ether Extract P - Phosphorus

29
 Suggested Maximum Inclusion Rates of Feedstuffs for PIgs
Percentage (%) of the Ration

INGREDIENTS Prestarter Starte Grower Finisher Breed Reasons for

r er
Limitation
1. Blood meal NR 3 3 3 3 Low digestibility
Unpalatable
Low isoleucine
2. Brewer' grain NR 5 10 10 10 Low lysine
High fiber
3. Copra meal / NR 5 20 20 20 Protein quality
Cake High fiber

4. Corn bran NR 5 15 20 20 High fiber

Low lysine

5. Corn germ meal NR 5 10 20 20 Protein quality

High fiber
6. Corn gluten NR 5 10 20 20 Protein quality
feed High fiber

7. Corn, grain 80 80 70 50 50 High level may produce

soft fat
8. Cottonseed NR NR 10 10 10 Gossypol content, high
Meal/cake fiber
Poor protein quality
9. Fats / oils 3 5 5 5 5 Rancidity
10. Feather meal NR NR 10 10 5 Low quality protein
11. Fish meal 10 10 8 5 10 Fishy taste to pork
12. Groundnut meal/ NR 5 10 10 10 Possibility of
cake Aflatoxin
13. Ipil-ipil leaf meal NR 2 10 10 5 Mimosine content, high
fiber
Low protein quality
14. Malt sprout NR NR NR NR 10 High fiber
15. Meat and Bone NR 3 5 5 5 Poor quality protein
meal Cost
16. Molasses, cane NR 5 5 5 5 Mixing problem
Low protein and energy

30
 Suggested Maximum Inclusion Rates of Feedstuffs for PIgs
(Percentage (%) of the Ration)

INGREDIENTS Starter Growe Finish Breeder Reasons for

r er
Limitation
17. Palm kernel meal NR 10 15 15 30 Poor quality protein
High fiber
18. Rapeseed meal NR NR 5 5 5 Poor quality protein
Unpalatable
19. Rice bran 10 20 30 30 50 High level may
produce
soft fat, high fiber
20. Sesame seed 20 20 20 20 High level may
produce
soft pork
21. Skim milk powder No NR - - - Cost
limit
22. Sorghum, grain 20 20 35 35 50 Tannic acid

23. Soybean meal As much as needed if product is properly

processed.
If not sure of processing use up to 30 % only
24. Sweet potato 30 30 40 40 50 Low protein

25. Cassava meal NR 20 25 25 20 Dustiness

(Tapioca) Low protein

26. Whey powder 25 25 - - - Cost

27. Wheat 5 10 30 30 30 Can be very fine

and pasty

28. Wheat pollard 5 10 20 30 30 High fiber

31
Chapter 3
FEED INGREDIENTS FOR PIGS

A very large variety of feed ingredients are used as feeds for pigs. Feed ingredients
are classified according to their composition and origin.

1. Cereals and milling by-products

2. Root crops
3. Animal protein sources
4. Plant protein sources
5. Forage (green fodder)
6. Mineral sources

Cereals and milling by-products

Cereals are known for their good palatability and digestibility.

They are easy to store and handle, and are used in large quantities in compound
feeds.

Cereals are generally used for direct human consumption. Often only the by-products
obtained after milling are used as feed ingredients.

The manufacture of flour from cereal grains and corn (maize) for human use results in
several by-products available for feeding to livestock. The seed is covered with layers
high in fiber that are also higher in protein and minerals compared to the inner
substance that is mainly starch.

Seeds of all species of cereals of grains have a similar general structure. The bran
fraction represents the outermost layer of the seed. Underneath this layer is the
aleurone layer. The germ that is at the base of the seed is high in fat, fat-soluble
vitamins and minerals. Under the aleurone layer and constituting most of the mass of
the seed is the endosperm. The endosperm is composed of thin-walled cells packed
with starch intermixed with gluten. In milling, the objective is to remove as much starch
and gluten as possible while maximizing the exclusion of the germ, aleurone and bran
fractions. Owing to the variable degree of separation, flour by-products are produced
containing a wide range of fibers (bran and aleurone fractions), proteins and minerals.

1. Zea mays (maize, corn)

Corn grain is palatable and suitable for all classes of livestock. It is the most common
grain used for feeding swine. Corn is rich in energy and low in fiber and minerals. The
protein level and its biological value are low. To counterbalance these deficiencies,
proper protein supplementation is needed.

White and yellow corns are of similar composition except that yellow corn is high in
carotene, a Vitamin A precursor.

High levels of corn in the ration result in soft carcass-fat. If the market requires hard
fat (e.g. for meat processing), corn should be restricted.

32
Corn bran

Corn bran is a by-product of milling corn. Its fiber, protein and fat contents are higher
than in corn grain. It may produce soft pork if fed in large quantities to pigs

2. Oryza sativa (rice)

Rice is the most important crop in Asia. Different by-products of rice can be used in
swine feeding and sometimes second class rice can be fed if prices are relatively low.

Rice bran

Rice bran is the most important rice by-product. It is fairly palatable to farm animals.
Rice bran is of highly variable quality, depending mainly on the quantity of hulls
included in the bran. Rice bran is a good feed but it easily becomes rancid in storage.
This depends on the kind of rice mill. The "cono" rice mill produces a good quality bran
with low fiber content. The bran of the "kiskisan" mill is too high in fiber content for
adequate swine ration.

Many breeders and fattening pigs in backyard farms in the Philippines are fed with
rations consisting of almost 100% rice bran. With such rations, performance is low but
may be compensated by the low feed cost. No reliable data are available regarding
this and more research will be necessary.

3. Triticum aestivum (wheat)

Wheat

Wheat should be crushed especially if it is the small hard kernels variety. If it is finely
ground, it will form pasty and very indigestible lumps. In concentrates, wheat can be
included up to 30 % for growing and gestating pigs and 40 % for lactating pigs.

Wheat bran

In the Philippines, it is commonly known as "pollard." The bran fractions contain most
of the vitamins and protein of the wheat grain. Wheat bran is highly palatable and has
a laxative effect. Its amino acid balance is superior to that of whole wheat. Young pigs
should not be fed with high levels of bran because of the high fiber content.

4. Sorghum bicolor (sorghum, milo)

Sorghum grains are excellent feed for all classes of livestock. Its feeding value is
good compared to that of corn. Whole grain can be fed to pigs but cracked or ground
grains give a better feed efficiency. Sorghum has the disadvantage of tending to
cause constipation. Some varieties have a high tannin content that makes them
unpalatable for pigs.

33
 ROOT CROPS AND OTHER ENERGY SOURCES

1. Manihot esculenta (cassava, tapioca, manioc)

A feed source with a great potential in many tropical areas. Cassava has a wide range
of adaptability, resistance to drought, tolerance to poor soil and relative ease of
cultivation. It is one of the highest yielders of starch found in the tropics. In Europe,
dried cassava (chips), mainly imported from Thailand, replaced corn as the main
energy source in swine feeds.

Toxicity

Cassava roots must be processed very carefully as they contain linamarin, a chemical
substance that produces the volatile and highly toxic prussic acid (HCN). Peeled
roots contain much less prussic acid than unpeeled roots because most of the
linamarin is located in the skin.

Various processing methods can be used to reduce or remove the toxic substance like
cooking, chopping and sun drying or oven drying.

Cassava can replace almost all the grain in the diets with little reduction in
performance. Inclusion of levels up to 65% (preferably pelleted) do not seem to affect
health, carcass quality or overall performance when diets are carefully balanced.

Meat of pig fed with high-cassava rations is paler as compared to corn-fed pig. This is
a disadvantage when consumers prefer the red-colored meat. Another difference in
the carcass of cassava-fed pig is that its fat is much harder than that of corn-fed hogs.

2. Ipomea batatas (sweet potato, kamote)

The tubers are highly digestible and an excellent source of energy. Sweet potatoes
can be used fresh, cooked or dehydrated in rations for livestock. Because of the
bulkiness of fresh sweet potatoes, they are better used by mature pigs.

The energy digestibility of raw and cooked sweet potato is similar but the protein
digestibility increases by cooking. Sweet potatoes produce hard pork.

3. Colacasia esculenta (gabi, taro, old cocoyam, eddoe, dasheen)

Gabi is a very common feed for backyard pigs. Both leaves and tubers are used. The
tubers should be cooked for feeding. Large quantities of uncooked gabi can cause
digestive problems because of poisonous substances that irritate the digestive tract.

Feeding value of gabi is comparable to that of cassava.

4. Dioscorea sp. (yam)

The true yam (Dioscorea sp.) is used as a staple food for human beings and as a
livestock feed. Yam is a carbohydrate source, but protein content is very low.

34
The feasibility of this tuber as a swine feed is doubtful because of the alkaloid, tannin
and saponin content. The alkaloids are extremely toxic and both tannin and saponin
have very bitter taste. Cooking improves the palatability of the tuber.

5. Musa sp. (bananas)

Although bananas are grown largely for human consumption, a large quantity of this
fruit is available for livestock feed.

Bananas can be used fresh or as dried meal. Pigs consume more bananas when
given ripe. This difference in consumption is associated with differences in palatability.
However, ripe bananas fed in large quantities may cause diarrhea. Bananas are
usually fed to pigs ad lib with concentrate supplementation (Mindanao). There seems
to be no advantage in cooking the bananas before feeding.

6. Amorphophallus campanulatus (elephant's foot, pongapong)

This is a root crop that practically thrives in all types of soil. The corn and stem
including the leaves can be used for feeding pigs. Tubers and leaves of wild plants
contain sharp crystals of calcium oxalate that puncture the mouth and tongue causing
intense irritation. Pongapong should be cooked before feeding.

7. Sugar cane

Molasses is a major by-product of sugar production. It is an energy source containing

high levels of monosaccharide and disaccharides and with variable quantities of crude
protein and minerals.

Large quantities of molasses (more than 25 to 30%) cause diarrhea in pigs. The
tolerance of pigs to molasses increases with age and body weight.

With low prices for sugar, feeding of fresh sugar cane juice to pigs became more
interesting. It can be fed ad lib and when properly supplemented with a high-protein
concentrate, it can give excellent growth.

8. Tallow or animal fat

This is the product obtained from the tissues of mammals and/or poultry in the
commercial processes of rendering or extracting. Fat increases feed palatability and
eliminate dustiness. It thereby improves feed consumption resulting in better growth
and feed conversion rate.

9. Swill

Swill also known as garbage or kitchen refuse is a very heterogeneous product that
results from food discarded from restaurants, hotels, military establishments and
homes. Because of variation in origin and content, the chemical composition of swill is
also quite variable. Swill is a significant source of feed for pigs especially for backyard
pig raisers.

35
One of the major problems in feeding swill is related to sanitation and diseases. It can
be a vehicle for spreading serious infectious diseases such as hog cholera as well as
tuberculosis and salmonellosis that affect both pigs and human beings.

To prevent the spread of diseases, swill should be properly processed to destroy all the
pathogenic agents. Proper processing is usually accomplished by boiling (100 C) in
an open barrel (drum) or steam cooking for not less than 30 minutes. The cooked swill
should be allowed to cool off before feeding.

The most efficient utilization of cooked swill can be obtained by supplementing the swill
ration with concentrate (compound feeds).

ANIMAL PROTEIN SOURCES

1. Fish Meal

Fish meal is made either from whole fish or from the waste in fish processing. Good
quality fish meal is one of the most valuable protein sources available for pig feeding.
It is very palatable and is rich in lysine that makes it an ideal supplement to cereals.

The quality of fish meal depends on both the raw materials from which it is produced
and on the method of preparation.
Imported peruvian fish meal is a high quality fish meal. The quality of locally produced
fish meal varies greatly. Often, it has a very high salt content.

A high level of fish meal in the ration may cause the fat to give a fishy flavor to the
meat.

2. Meat Meal, Meat and Bone Meal

The waste products of abattoirs include unsalable meat scraps, fat, bones, tendons,
guts and some skin. The quality of meat meal depends on the materials included and
on the processing. Although excellent results are obtainable with high quality meat
meal as supplement to cereals, there are many reports showing poor performance
when meat and bone meal is the only protein supplement.

3. Blood Meal

Blood meal contains small quantities of minerals but is very rich in protein, which has a
rather imbalance amino acid composition. Because of its low palatability less than 5%
is usually included in pig rations. Larger quantities may cause diarrhea and less feed
consumption.

4. Shrimp Meal

Shrimp meal is made either from waste (heads and scales) or from whole shrimps that
are not good enough for human consumption.

36
The meal contains large quantities of chitin, a nearly indigestible crude protein. About
10% of the crude protein in whole shrimp meal and up to 50% of the nitrogen in scale
meal originate from chitin.

5. Skim Milk

No doubt, this is the most nutritive, palatable and digestible feed available.
Only the high price limits its use. It is often used in early weaning diets or in creep
feeds to encourage early consumption of dry feeds.

PLANT PROTEIN SOURCES

1. Glycine max (soybean)

Soybeans has the highest protein quality among plant sources. The presence of
several inhibitors of protein utilization in raw soybeans requires that they be cooked or
heated before feeding to pigs.

Soybean protein can be the major source of protein in pig feeds due to its good amino
acid balance. In some cases, it is use as the only source of protein in compound feeds
for pigs.

Soybean meal, soybean cake and full fat soybean meal are most valuable sources of
plant protein in livestock feeding.

Properly processed soybean meal contains protein of excellent quality and can be fed
to all classes of animals with no restraints.

2. Cocos nucifera (coconut)

Copra is usually too expensive to use as an animal feed, although it has been fed to
pigs with good results. As the fat in copra contains only small quantities of
unsaturated fatty acids, its consumption leads to hard carcass fat.

Coconut meal or cake is the residual product after extraction of oil from the dried
coconut meat. Even though the meal contains only moderate levels of crude protein, it
is an economically important source of protein in areas where other sources are not
readily available.

Coconut cake or meal used in feeding must not be old and rancid as it will cause
diarrhea. Animals that are not used to it are at first t reluctant to consume this product
but if introduced slowly into the ration, they soon acquire a liking for it.

Because coconut meal/cake is rich in fiber, its inclusion in pig diets is restricted.

37
3. Leucaena leucocephala (ipil-ipil)

Ipil-ipil leaf meal

This is made from ipil-ipil leaves sun dried and ground or milled. It is a high protein
feed but feeding must be carefully controlled for pigs because of its mimosine content
and high crude fiber content.

The addition of iron salts decreases toxicity, and if the treated material is allowed to
stand for a week before mixed with feeds, little toxicity remains.

ALTERNATIVES TO ANTIBIOTICS

For some years we have been using antibiotic growth promoters to overcome the
pigs susceptibility to digestive disorders. But because of consumer concerns, the
trend now in the pig industry is to develop and test alternatives to antibiotics. The
objective is to lessen the use of antibiotics and use instead some alternatives that
may give the same positive response in terms of good performance. Antibiotic
alternatives includes :

Probiotics
Organic acids/ acidifiers
Zinc oxide
Mannan Oligosaccharides
Enzymes
Plant extracts

PROBIOTICS/DIRECT-FED MICROBIALS

Probiotics are live microbial products. Probiotics increase the population of desirable
microflora in the gut at the expense of disease-producing organisms. Other benefits
include a reduction in intestinal pH and a reduction of toxic amines whereby
improving the daily gain and feed efficiency.

ACIDIFIERS

The gastrointestinal tracts of weaned piglets do not produce sufficient amounts of

acids. Organic acids(fumaric, propionic, citric) are added to piglet diets to increase
the acidity of the stomach and thereby improve protein digestion. In addition,
maintaining stomach acidity encourages the proliferation of acid-producing bacteria
which improves the health and functioning of the digestive system.

ZINC OXIDE

Zinc oxide is added piglet diets at levels between 2,000 and 3,000 ppm. Zinc has
been shown to improve starter pig growth rate.

38
MANNAN OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Oligossacharides are complex carbohydrates extracted from yeast cell walls. It

protects the health of animals by at least two mechanisms:

bind several species of pathogenic microorganisms

modulate the animals immune system

ENZYMES

Enzymes may be beneficial in diets of newly weaned pigs which do not have a full
complement of digestive enzymes necessary for digesting starch and vegetable
proteins.

The effect of antibiotics on the outcome of disease is gut-microflora related.

Therefore, investigation of any diet induced changes in the gut ecosystem is the
starting pont for the quest of finding suitable alternatives to antibiotics. A sudden
introduction or change in diet disturbs the established gut microflora. In the case of
introducing a high non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) diet, such as wheat or barley,
the change favours the proliferation of anaerobic organisms like Clostridia. Diets
high in soluble non-starch polysaccharides increased fermentation in the small
intestine of chickens, leading to poor performance(Choc et al., 1996). In recent
reports (Choc et al., 1999) , the breakdown of the NSP with enzymes can largely
eliminate fermentation in the small intestine which coincides with improved bird
performance.

PLANT EXTRACTS

The initial effect of adding plant extracts to animal feed is stimulating appetite. Many
plants also contain active ingredients which increase secretion by the salivary glands
and of gastric and pancreatic juices (garlic, onion, paprika), therefore leading to a
decrease in pH in the stomach and better digestion.

Some substances have been shown to have strong antibacterial properties. For
example oregano oil has been shown to significantly reduce post-weaning diarrhea
and mortality in piglets, by inhibiting intestinal E.coli.

Of course, these nutritional alternatives should be combined with good husbandry

practices. Biosecurity is the most important factor.

Flavenoids which are found in extracts of garlic, onion and paprika have been found
to increase phagocytic activity.

39
 Self-evaluation Test

1. How much wheat can you use in pig diets?

2. Does particle size of the feed affect pig performance? What should be the best
particle size for pig feeds?

3. If you have a choice in using feed premixes. One is separate vitamin and mineral
premix and the second is a combined vitamin-mineral premix. Which one will you
choose and why?

40