35 Argument Principle

Argument principle

Theorem 35.1 (Argument Principle) Let f be meromorphic in a domain D ⊂ C. Let C

be a closed Jordan curve that is homotopic to a point in D. Suppose that all zeros of f
inside C are aν with order mν , 1 ≤ ν ≤ n, and all poles of F inside C are bµ with order pµ ,
1 ≤ µ ≤ m, and that F has neither zero nor pole in C. Then
I Xn Xm
1 f ′ (z)
dz = mν − pµ .
2πi C f (z) ν=1 µ=1

Proof: By residue theorem or the standard argument in the proof of Cauchy integral theorem,
it is suffices to prove the lemma below. 

Lemma 35.2 Let D ⊂ C be a domain and f ∈ Mer(D). If a ∈ D such that a is a zero of

f with order m, then
f′
Res(a; ) = m.
f
If a ∈ D such that a is a pole of f with order p, then
f′
Res(a; ) = −p.
f

Proof: Let a ∈ D be a zero of f with order m, i.e.,

f (z) = am (z − a)m + am+1 (z − a)m+1 + ......, ∀m ≥ 1

where am 6= 0. Then

f ′ (z) = am m(z − a)m−1 + am+1 (m + 1)(z − a)m + ...

so that
f′ am m(z − a)m−1 + am+1 (m + 1)(z − a)m + ...
=
f am (z − a)m + am+1 (z − a)m+1 + ......
m
= +ea0 + e
a1 (z − a) + ...
z−a
′
Hence Res(a; ff ) = m.

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 If a is a pole of f with order p, i.e.,
a−p a−p+1
f (z) = p
+ + ......,
(z − a) (z − a)p−1
where a−p 6= 0, then
pa−p −(p − 1)a−p+1
f ′ (z) = − p+1
+ + ......
(z − a) (z − a)p+2
so that
f′ p
=− + eb0 + eb1 (z − a) + ...
f z−a
′
Hence Res(a; ff ) = −p. 
Remark Why is this theorem called the “Argument principle?” In fact, suppose C = ∂∆(1),

I I
1 f ′ (z) 1
dz = d(log f (z))
2πi C f (z) 2πi C
I I
1 1
= d(log|f (z)|) + d(arg f (z))
2πi C 2π C
1 θ=2π 1 θ=2π
= log|f (eiθ )|θ=0 + iarg(f (eiθ ))θ=0
2πi 2πi
1 
=0+ arg f (e2iπ ) − arg f (e0 )
2π
the last term is the deviation of the argument arg f (z).
[Example] Using the argument principle to prove the fundamental theorem of algebra.
Proof: Let f (z) = z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 , n ≥ 1. Assume f never vanish. We are
seeking a contradiction. Let r is a real number such that |f (z)| ≥ 1 for |z| = r. We find
f ′ (z) nz n−1 + (n − 1)an−1 z n−2 + ... + a1 n 1
= n n−1
= + terms in j where j ≥ 2.
f (z) z + an−1 z + ... + a1 z + a0 z z
Then we obtain I
f ′ (z)
dz = n.
∂∆(r) f (z)
On the other hand, by the argument principle (notiece thtat f has no pole),
I Xn
f ′ (z)
dz = mv .
∂∆(r) f (z) v=1

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It implies that f has n zeros. 
Remark: Extended Argument principle Let f and D be in the Argument Principle.
If g(z) is another holomorphic function in D. Then we obtain the following formula
I X X
1 f ′ (z) f′ f′
g(z) dz = Res(aj ; )g(aj ) + Res(bk ; )g(bk ). (134)
2πi C f (z) j
f k
f

Rouché theorem The Argument Principle has an interesting application:

Theorem 35.3 (Rouché Theorem) Let D ⊂ C be a bounded domain. Let f and g be

holomorphic functions defined in D and let C be a closed Jordan curve. Assume that C is
homotopic to a point such that
|g(z)| < |f (z)| holds f or any z ∈ C. (135)
Suppose that f and f + g have no zero in C. Then the number of zeros of f inside C equals
to the number of zeros of f + g inside C.

Proof: By Argument Principle, we need to show:

I ′ I ′
1 f (z) + g ′ (z) 1 f (z)
dz = dz.
2πi C f (z) + g(z) 2πi C f (z)
The left hand side can be written as
I  ′ ( fg )′

1 f
+ (z)dz
2πi C f 1 + fg
because
′ ′
f′ ( fg )′ f′
f g −gf
f2 f ′ f g ′ − gf ′ f ′ (f + g) + f g ′ − gf ′ f ′ + g′
+ = + = + = = .
f 1 + fg f f +g
f
f f (f + g) f (f + g) f +g
 
By the condition,  fg  < 1 on C. Then the value of the function 1 + fg (z) is inside ∆(1; 1) so


that for any z ∈ C, the function log 1+ fg is well defined and holomorphic on a neighborhood
of C. Then we calculate the integral
I I
( fg )′ d g

g dz = log 1 + dz = 0. 
C 1+ f C dz f

Remark:

213
 1. Another version of Rouché Theorem is: Uisng the same notation as in Rouché theorem
above, if
|f (z) − g(z)| < |g(z)| holds f or any z ∈ C, (136)
then the number of zeros f and of g are eqaul.

2. The conclusion of Rouché theorem remains valid if the condition (136) can be replaced
by a weaker condition 94

|f (z) − g(z)| < |f (z)| + |g(z)| holds f or any z ∈ C. (137)

[Example] Prove that all five zeros of the polynomial z 5 + 3z + 1 lie in the disk ∆(2).
Proof: Let f (z) = z 5 , and g(z) = 3z + 1. We check

|g(z)| < |f (z)|, ∀z ∈ ∂∆(2).

In fact, |g(z)| = |3z + 1| ≤ 3|z| + 1 ≤ 3 · 2 + 1 = 7 < 32 = |z|5 for any z ∈ ∂∆(2). Then
applying Rouché theorem (135), the number of the zeros of f (z) inside ∆(2), which is five,
is equal to the number of zeros of f (z) + g(z) = z 5 + 3z + 1 inside ∆(2). 
[Example] Let f (z) = 3 + az + z 4 where a > 5 is a real number. Show that f has exactly
one zero in ∆(1).
Proof: Wrtie f (z) = g(z) + z 4 where g(z) = 3 + az. Since

|f (z) − g(z)| = |z 4 | = 1 < 2 ≤ |az| − 3 ≤ |3 + az| = |g(z)| ∀|z| = 1,

by (136), the number of zeros of f and g are the same. Since g(z) = 3 + az has exactly one
zero inside ∆(1), we are done. 
[Example] Using Rouché Theorem to prove the fundamental theorem of algebra.
Proof: To show that a polynomial

f (z) = z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0

has exactly n zeros in C.

Let g(z) = −an−1 z n−1 − ... − a1 z − a0 . We claim that

|g(z)| < |f (z)|, ∀z ∈ ∂∆(R)

94
see, R. Remmert, Theory of Complex Functions, Springer, p.390.

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for a sufficiently large R > 0. In fact,

|f (z)| = |z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 | ≥

1
≥ |z|n − |an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 | > |z|n − |z|n , ∀|z| = R,
2
1 n n−1
If we can show: 2 |z| > |an−1 z + ... + a1 z + a0 | for all |z| = R and R sufficiently large.
This is equivalent to
1  an−1 a1 a0 
> + ... + n−1 + n , ∀ |z| = R
2 z z z
for sufficiently large R, which is clearly true. 
Historic remark: In 1862, Frence mathematician Eugéne Rouché proved a theorem in
his paper “Mémoire sur la série de Lagrange” in Jour. l’École Imp. Polytechn. 22(no.39),
93-224 as follows.
Let α be a constant such that on the circle ∂∆(1):
 
 f (z) 
α 
 g(z)  < 1

holds for a pair of functions f and g which are holomorphic in a neighborhood of ∆(1).
Then the equations g(z) − αf (z) = 0 and g(z) = 0 have an equal number of roots in ∆(1).

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