SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 3.9

Candidates should be able to:

3.9 perform an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice

CONTENT

Find the mass of a clean dry polystyrene cup with a drinking straw (used as a stirrer). Half-fill the
cup with water that has been previously warmed to 15oC above room temperature. Determine the
new mass of the cup with water and straw and hence determine mw, the mass of the water in the
cup.

When the temperature of the water is about 10oC above room temperature (this temperature should
be accurately recorded with a thermometer, while stirring), start adding small pieces of ice,
previously dried on a tissue to remove the water. Add one piece at a time and stir until all the ice is
melted before adding another piece. Keep repeating this until the final water temperature is about 10
o
C below room temperature. Record this temperature.

Next, weigh the cup with cold water to find the total mass and thus the mass, m1 of the ice melted.

The changes taking place are:

Ice Water at 0 oC (change of state, so temperature is constant)

Water at 0oC Water at 0f oC (change of temperature of water = θf)

Water θi Water θf where θi = initial temperature of water in cup and θf = final

While the ice gain heat and melts, the water and calorimeter are both losing the same amount of
heat. (Conservation of energy principle)

Heat lost by water = mw cw ∆T = mw cw (θi -θf)

Heat gained by ice and water formed from it = mil + mi cw (θf – 0)

Heat gained by ice Heat lost by water

+ heat gained by water from it = original in cup

By substituting for mw, cw, θi and θf the value of l may be found.

Note:

(a) The ice should be dried properly with tissue paper before placing it in water.

(b) When the water and the calorimeter are 10oC above room temperature, the heat lost (mainly
radiation) at temperatures above room temperature is compensated for by adding enough ice
to cool the temperature down to 10oC below room temperature, when heat is now gained
from the surroundings.

(c) The water and ice must be stirred to achieve a uniform temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 3.10

Candidates should be able to:

3.10 describe an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

CONTENT

The apparatus for an activity to determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of water is shown
in Figure 6.16
Place the heater in an insulated beaker of water and switch it on. After the water begins to boil, note
the reading on the balance and immediately start a stop-clock. As boiling continues, the water
evaporates. Note the reading on the balance every minute for the next fifteen minutes. The
calculations are demonstrated in the example that follows.

Example:

Suppose a 100 W immersion heater is used:

Then heat supplied by heater to water to change it to steam. EH

= power of heater x time

= 100 J/s x (15 x 60) s

= 9 x 104 J

If 30 g of water is (boiled) off in this time, then:

mL = 9 x 104 J

L = 9 x 104 / 0.03

= 9 x 106 / 3 = 3x106 J kg-1

One possible error arising in this experiment is that the can and water lose heat to the surroundings.

If a heater is not available, then a simple one could be made by winding about 40 cm of
constantan wire (swg 30) or nichrome wire (swg 26) around a pencil.

The wire should be soldered to stout copper leads and would now become our heating
element. The leads could be connected into the circuit using crocodile chips.

Do not let the coil touch the sides or bottom of the container. A 12 V supply would be
appropriate.
EVAPORTION AND BOILING

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE 3.11

Candidates should be able to:

3.11 differentiate between evaporation and boiling

CONTENT

Evaporation and boiling both involve changing from the liquid to gaseous state.

The differences between boiling and evaporation are:

1. (a) Boiling only occurs at a definite temperature (called the boiling point) for a given
temperature.

(b) Evaporation occurs at any temperature at which the substance is a liquid and it may be
accomplished by a lowering of temperature of the evaporating liquid.

2. (a) Boiling takes place throughout the whole liquid body, and bubbles appear within the
liquid (these bubbles consist of vapour (i.e. steam in the case of water).

(b) Evaporation only occurs at the surface of liquids. No bubbles are formed.

3. Evaporation takes place spontaneously but boiling requires that a minimum rate of supply of
energy be maintained. The similarity between the two processes is that no matter whether the
vapour “boils off” or “evaporates off” energy (latent heat of vaporization) is required.

In the absence of an external source of energy the latent heat of vaporization needed for evaporation
is taken from the liquid itself, so cooling results.
TRANSFERRING ENERGY

CONDUCTION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 4.1-4.3)

Candidates should be able to:

4.1 describe an experiment to compare qualitatively the thermal conductivities of different solids

4.2 describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor

4.3 relate the fact that air is a very poor conductor to the insulation properties of certain materials

CONTENT

Solids, liquids and gases all conduct heat to some extent and there is no perfect thermal insulator
known. Conduction of thermal energy by liquids and gases is usually masked by thermal energy
transfer by convection. Amongst solids, metals are by far better conductors of heat than non-metals
and gases are generally poor conductors of heat. The choice of a material for some everyday or
specialized use is often determined by how well or how badly it conducts heat.

To compare the thermal conductivities of different metals you can use at least four metals (See Fig.
6.17) with the same length and diameter. These rods should each be dipped into a container of hot,
melted candle wax, so that a coating of wax is formed about them.

They should then be placed on the tripod with one end of each in the flame. A match-stick is stuck
onto the end of each wax-coated metal rod to make the effect more dramatic.

After heating for a few minutes, the wax on the copper melts, the further along its length followed
by aluminum, brass and then iron. This demonstrates that copper is a better conductor of heat than
aluminum, brass or iron the match stick also fall off in the sequence.

Poor Conductivity of Water

Figure 6.18 shows that apparatus used to determine that water is a poor conductor-a test tube
containing a chunk of ice, and water. The ice is made to sink to the bottom by metal gauze. Using a
test-tube holder, the water at the top is heated in the Bunsen burner. The water starts boiling while
the ice at the bottom remains unmelted. Only after a relatively long time does the ice melt.

The water is not heated from below because heat transfer by convection would be set up.

Thus, water is a very poor conductor of heat. Most liquids (except mercury, a metal) are poor
conductors.

Air- A Poor Thermal Conductor

Air is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore, materials containing trapped air are good insulators. For
example, fabrics such as wool and fur contain trapped air between their fibers and are used as warm
clothing. Substances like expanded polystyrene and fiber-glass also contain trapped air and are used
for lagging.
CONVECTION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (4.4 - 4.5)

4.4 describe experiments which demonstrate convection in fluids

4.5 relate convection to common phenomena

CONTENT

Convection is an everyday process. It involves the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) in natural
and artificial systems for the transference of thermal energy. In “natural” (as opposed to “forced”)
convection the fluid movement is self-generated and maintained by disequilibrium caused by
differences in density of different parts of the fluid.

The dissipation of “waste heat” produced by combustion and other processes is an important
engineering concern and convection may be usefully employed to accomplish it.

Activity to Demonstrate Convection in Liquids

Insert a long glass tube into a 500 ml flask filled with water, Fig 6.19. Drop crystals of potassium
permanganate to the bottom of the flask through the glass tube and then remove the latter. (The
crystals are directed straight to the bottom of the flask, and so should not color the water before
heating).

Heat the bottom of the flask using a low flame. Streams of purple water move upwards from the
crystals and spread out at the top showing the convection currents.
Activity to Demonstrate Convection in Gases

Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig 6.20. When the candle is lit, the smoke from the cardboard
passes down the first glass tube into the box and up through the other tube. The smoke movement
demonstrates that the air is moving. The hot air rises and the cooler air descends to take its place,
thus setting up convection current.

(Natural) convection is caused by the fluid, which is directly heated, expanding and rising. The fluid
and, since its mass remains constant, its density will decrease (p = M/V). Thus the less dense fluid
rises and the colder, denser fluid sinks to take its place.

One common phenomenon that illustrates convection is the land and sea breeze in the Caribbean.
During the day, the land is heated by the sun to the highest temperature than that of the sea, because
land has a lower specific heat capacity than sea water. Also, the sea water is constantly moving so
the temperature of its surface is kept low. The air above the land is heated and rises, and this air is
replaced by colder air from the sea, which moves in to take its place. Thus a sea breeze is formed.

At night, the opposite process occurs. The temperature of the sea falls very slightly, while the land
temperature falls rapidly. Thus, the air over the sea is warmer than that over the land, and
convection current is set up in the opposite direction (land breeze blowing from land to sea).
RADIATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (4.6- 4.10)

Candidates should be able to:

4.6 describe an experiment to demonstrate that radiant energy does not need a medium for its
transmission.

4.7 recall that radiant energy is electro-magnetic (e.m.) radiation

4.8 describe experiments to investigate the factors on which the absorption and emission of
radiation depends.

4.9 recall that good absorbers are also good emitters

4.10 relate the phenomenon of radiation to everyday practices:

CONTENT

Apart from conduction and convection, thermal energy can be transferred by means of a type of
electromagnetic radiation. Although thermal radiation is transmitted through many different media,
it does not require a medium for transmission. Radiant energy form the sun reaches Earth even
though most of the intervening space is highly evacuated.

The following activity demonstrates heat transfer by radiation through a vacuum. A sealed bell-jar
enclosing a connected electric bell, and a heating coil which is part of an electric circuit is set upon
in fashion similar to that used for demonstrating that sound cannot be transmitted through a
vacuum.

As in that demonstration, air is pumped out of the jar until the sound is not heard on the outside.
The circuit containing the heating coil is then closed. After a while, the outside of the bell-jar
becomes hot because radiant energy passing through the evacuated space is transmitted to and
absorbed by the walls of the bell-jar.

A working vacuum tube (thermionic valve) shown in Fig 6.21, below, also shows the effect.
Absorption and Emission of Radiation

Some materials absorb thermal radiation and are therefore not transparent to this type of radiation as
glass is. In fact, even glass is not transparent to all “infra-red” radiation (as thermal radiation is
called). The “color” and “texture” of different surfaces determines how such surfaces absorb and
emit the type of electromagnetic radiation.

Materials that have a dark and dull appearance are better absorbers of heat than those having highly-
polishes, shiny surfaces. It is best to wear light colored clothes in the Caribbean as they absorb less
radiation. Also, houses are usually painted with light colors, so as to keep them cooler. This
happens because the light surfaces reflect the radiation from the sun much better than dark surfaces
which tend to absorb it.

Dark, dull surfaces are also better radiators of heat than a polished, shiny one. In the home kettles,
teapots and toasters are all made of shiny silver on the outside since they retain their heat for longer
periods than would a dull surface.
Emission of Thermal Radiation by Surfaces

In the activity you compare a dull, black surface and a shiny, highly-polished surface to see which
the better radiator of heat is. Use a sheet of copper or aluminum (one side is highly polished, while
the other side is made dull, black by being coated the soot from candle flame). The sheet is made
very hot by the flame.

You could use a very sensitive thermometer or thermopile to indicate that heat is being emitted
from each side, or students could “feel” the radiation with the backs of their hands.

Thermal radiation is emitted by all hot bodies. It represents the conversion of (some of) the internal
energy of the body into electromagnetic radiation.

The following activity demonstrates the absorption of radiation by different surfaces:

Absorption of Infra- Red Radiation by Different Surfaces

In this activity two copper or aluminum sheets are clamped beside each other. The inner surface of
one of the sheets is blackened all over using the soot from the candle, while the other is brightly
polished until shiny. A cork is fixed by wax to the outside face of each sheet and a lit bunsen burner
is placed mid-way between them, so that each surface receives the same amount of radiation.
Fig.6.22

The wax on the dull, black plate soon melts and the cork slides off. The shiny plate remains cool,
however, and the wax unmelted.

When thermal radiation is absorbed by the surface of a body, it is converted into internal energy, i.e.
the kinetic energy of vibrating particles in the body.
Other useful simple demonstrations of the different emitting and absorbing powers of different
surfaces are given by Jackson and Whiteley (1996).

The blackened surface absorbs radiation much better than the bright polished surface. Two other
factors that affect the rate of emission of radiation by a surface are its area and temperature. If either
of these is increased, other things remaining the same, then the radiation emitted also increases.

In summary, good absorbers of heat radiation are related to good emitters of heat. Dull, black
surfaces are very good emitters, and also very good absorbers of heat radiation. Highly polished
shiny surfaces are both poor emitters and poor absorbers of heat.

Solar Heaters

The solar water heaters Fig 6.23, a device that is used to trap the energy transferred by radiation
from the sun is becoming increasingly popular in the Caribbean. The solar water heaters consists of
a metal panel painted dull black on the side that faces the sun and is usually placed on the roof. The
panel contains copper tubes through which water is passed. Solar radiation falls on the panel which
readily absorbs this, and becomes hot. This heat is readily conducted through the copper tubes and
warms the water inside. The water is then sorted in an insulated storage tank.
THERMAL ENEGRY TRANSFER

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (4.11)

Candidates should be able to:

4.11 describe the ways in which thermal energy may be transferred.

CONTENT

Energy (“Heat”) may be transferred from one place to another by any, or all of three processes:
conduction, convection and radiation. Some differences between the three processes are:

(i) Conduction is the flow of heat through material substances from regions of high
temperatures to regions of lower temperature without movement of the material
substance as a whole.

(ii) Convection is the distribution of heat by means of fluids from regions of high
temperatures to regions of lower temperature by the actual movement of the fluid itself.

(iii) Radiation is the process whereby thermal energy is transferred from one place to
another by means of electromagnetic waves. This process can occur in a vacuum.

Metals are usually very good conductors of heat, while non-metals are poor conductors although
most metals are good conductors, some are much better than others e.g. silver and copper are
excellent conductors compared with iron and lead.

Most liquids and gases, with the exception of mercury, are extremely poor conductors. Heat is
usually transferred through and by them by the process of convection. This is caused by the fluid
(which is directly heated) expanding and rising. As the fluid expands its density decreases (p=M/V).
The less dense the fluid tends to rise upwards, and the colder, denser fluid sinks to take its place.

CONSERVAING THERMAL ENERGY

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (4.12)

Candidates should be able to:

4.12 relate the principle of thermal energy transfer to the design of devices
CONTENT

In everyday life, certain devices and appliances which involve heat become essential. If these are to
be efficient in performing the functions for which they were designed, their design must take into
consideration the principles of thermal energy transfer.

Such devices include the solar water heater as already described, the soldering iron Fig 6.24, the
electric toaster, Fig 6.25 and the vacuum flask Fig 6.26.

The electric toaster has a silvery surface, reducing heat loss by radiation which is the chief means
by which it toasts bread.

The vacuum or Dewar flask keeps hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold for very long periods of time.
The flask is constructed so as to make it difficult for heat to travel out of or into the flask. The flask
is one such device which takes into account all three thermal transfer effects.
The loss of heat is prevented by:

(i) Making the flask a double-walled glass vessel with a vacuum between the walls. Thus
heat loss by conduction and convection is minimized. Also, the stopper traps air and the
material (e.g. cork) of the stopper is a poor conductor of heat.

(ii) Silvering both glass walls on the vacuum side. This reduces heat loss due to radiation by
reflecting back the heat radiation into the flask.
 THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE (4.13)

Candidates should be able to:

4.13 explain the “glass-house”, (green house effect)

CONTENT

Another important effect of the radiation absorption phenomenon is the green house (or glass-
house) effect.

The glass house effect results because:

1. The radiation being emitted from the sun consists mostly of visible light and short-wave
length infra-red rays

2. These rays readily pass through glass and thus enter the glass-house. The soil, plants and
other objects in the green house absorb this radiation and their temperature is raised. These
warm substances in turn emit thermal radiation of a greater wavelength (long infra-red
radiation)

3. This long wavelength radiation cannot pass through the glass, but is reflected inwards and
goes towards raising the temperature of the air, which also cannot escape. Thus the glass
house acts as a heat trap.
An extension of this effect occurs when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts just like the glass
in the “glass house effect”, preventing the escape of long infra-red radiation from the hot earth
and is believed to be contributing to the phenomenon of “global warming”.