Light Detection and Ranging

KIRTI SONI
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Suresh gyan vihar university, Jaipur(Rajasthan)
kirtisoni1956@gmail.com

Abstract—Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) have a significant reflection. However non-metallic objects, such as
recently become the technologies of choice in mass rain and rocks produce weaker reflections and some materials
production of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), Digital may produce no detectable reflection at all, meaning some
Terrain Models (DTMs), and Triangulated Irregular objects or features are effectively invisible at radar
Networks (TINs), referred to generically hereafter as frequencies. This is especially true for very small objects
DEMs. This paper presents lessons learned from LIDAR (such as single molecules and aerosols).
projects to date in various states. It addresses Lasers provide one solution to these problems. The beam
opportunities presented by LIDAR for generating DEMs densities and coherency are excellent. Moreover the
as articulated by various user groups in the National wavelengths are much smaller than can be achieved with
Height Modernization Study. Finally, it summarizes radio systems, and range from about 10 micrometers to
actions required by the remote sensing community to the UV (ca. 250 nm). At such wavelengths, the waves are
establish LIDAR as standard tools, with established "reflected" very well from small objects. This type of
standards, for generating digital elevation data for the reflection is called backscattering. Different types of
new millennium. scattering are used for different LIDAR applications, most
common are Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and Raman
I. INTRODUCTION scattering as well as fluorescence. Based on different kinds of
backscattering, the LIDAR can be accordingly called
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is an optical remote Rayleigh LIDAR, Mie LIDAR, Raman LIDAR and Na/Fe/K
sensing technology that measures properties of scattered light Fluorescence LIDAR and so on. The wavelengths are ideal
to find range and/or other information of a distant target. The for making measurements of smoke and other airborne
prevalent method to determine distance to an object or surface particles (aerosols), clouds, and air molecules.
is to use laser pulses. Like the similar radar technology, which A laser typically has a very narrow beam which allows the
uses radio waves, the range to an object is determined by mapping of physical features with very
measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and high resolution compared with radar. In addition, many
detection of the reflected signal. LIDAR technology has chemical compounds interact more strongly at visible
application wavelengths than at microwaves, resulting in a stronger image
geometrics, archaeology, geography, geology, geomorpholog of these materials. Suitable combinations of lasers can allow
y, seismology,forestry, remote sensing and atmospheric for remote mapping of atmospheric contents by looking for
physics.[1] Applications of LIDAR include ALSM (Airborne wavelength-dependent changes in the intensity of the returned
Laser Swath Mapping), laser altimetry or LIDAR Contour signal.
Mapping. The acronym LADAR (Laser Detection and LIDAR has been used extensively for atmospheric research
Ranging) is often used in military contexts. The term laser and meteorology. With the deployment of the GPS in the
radar is also in use but is misleading because it uses laser light 1980s precision positioning of aircraft became possible. GPS
and not the radiowaves that are the basis of conventional based surveying technology has made airborne surveying and
radar. mapping applications possible and practical. Many have been
developed, using downward-looking LIDAR instruments
mounted in aircraft or satellites. A recent example is the
II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
NASA Experimental Advanced Research LIDAR.
The primary difference between LIDAR and RADAR is A basic LIDAR system involves a laser range finder reflected
LIDAR uses much shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic by a rotating mirror (top). The laser is scanned around the
spectrum, typically in the ultraviolet, visible, or near scene being digitized, in one or two dimensions (middle),
infrared range. In general it is possible to image a feature or gathering distance measurements at specified angle intervals
object only about the same size as the wavelength, or larger. (bottom).
Thus LIDAR is highly sensitive In general there are two kinds of LIDAR detection schema:
to aerosols and cloud particles and has many applications in "incoherent" or direct energy detection (which is principally
atmospheric research and meteorology. an amplitude measurement) and Coherent detection (which is
An object needs to produce a dielectric discontinuity to reflect best for Doppler, or phase sensitive measurements). Coherent
the transmitted wave. At radar systems generally use Optical heterodyne detection which
(microwave or radio) frequencies, a metallic object produces being more sensitive than direct detection allows them to

Page No. 1
operate a much lower power but at the expense of more application calls for elevations for not only the ground, but for
complex transceiver requirements. tree or building heights. As surface types and characteristics
In both coherent and incoherent LIDAR, there are two types vary and change the laser beam’s reflectivity, then the ability
of pulse models: MICROPULSE LIDAR systems and high of the LiDAR to record the return signals changes. For
energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a example, a laser used for topographic applications will not
result of the ever increasing amount of computer power penetrate water, and in fact records very little data even for
available combined with advances in laser technology. They the surface of the body of water. Where the application calls
use considerably less energy in the laser, typically on the for a laser to penetrate water to determine x, y, z positions of
order of one microjoule, and are often "eye-safe," meaning undersea features, then a slightly different variation of LiDAR
they can be used without safety precautions. High-power technology is used
systems are common in atmospheric research, where they are
widely used for measuring many atmospheric parameters: the III. COMPONENTS
height, layering and densities of clouds, cloud particle
properties (extinction coefficient, backscatter There are several major components to a LIDAR system:
coefficient, depolarization), temperature, pressure, wind,
humidity, trace gas concentration (ozone, methane, nitrous 1. Laser — 600-1000 nm lasers are most common for
oxide, etc.). non-scientific applications. They are inexpensive but since
On a functional level, LiDAR is typically defined as the they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the
integration of three technologies into a single system capable maximum power is limited by the need to make them eye-
of acquiring data to produce accurate digital elevation models safe. Eye-safety is often a requirement for most applications.
(DEMs). These technologies are lasers, the Global Positioning A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe at much
System (GPS), and inertial navigation systems (INS). higher power levels since this wavelength is not focused by
Combined, they allow the positioning of the footprint of a the eye, but the detector technology is less advanced and so
laser beam as it hits an object, to a high degree of accuracy. these wavelengths are generally used at longer ranges and
Lasers themselves are very accurate in their ranging lower accuracies. They are also used for military applications
capabilities, and can provide distances accurate to a few as 1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the
centimeters. The accuracy limitations of LiDAR systems are shorter 1000 nm infrared laser. Airborne topographic
due primarily to the GPS and IMU (Inertial Measurement mapping LIDARS generally use 1064 nm diode pumped
Unit) components. As advancements in commercially avail- YAG lasers, while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm
able GPS and IMUs occur, it is becoming possible to obtain a frequency doubled diode pumped YAG lasers because
high degree of accuracy using LiDAR from moving platforms 532 nm penetrates water with much less attenuation than does
such as aircraft.ALiDAR system combines a single narrow- 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate
beam laser with a receiver system. The laser produces an (which controls the data collection speed). Pulse length is
optical pulse that is transmitted, reflected off an object, and generally an attribute of the laser cavity length, the number of
returned to the receiver. The receiver accurately measures the passes required through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.),
travel time of the pulse from its start to its return. With the and Q-switch speed. Better target resolution is achieved with
pulse travelling at the speed of light, the receiver senses the shorter pulses, provided the LIDAR receiver detectors and
return pulse before the next pulse is sent out. Since the speed electronics have sufficient bandwidth.
of light is known, the travel time can be converted to a range 2. Scanner and optics — How fast images can be
measurement. Combining the laser range, laser scan angle, la- developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be
ser position from GPS, and laser orientation from INS, scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the
accurate x, y, z ground coordinates can be calculated for each azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating plane
laser pulse. mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis
scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution and range
Laser emission rates can be anywhere from a few that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are
pulses per second to tens of thousands of pulses per second. options to collect a return signal.
Thus, large volumes of points are collected. For example, a 3. Photodetector and receiver electronics — two main
laser emitting pulses at 10,000 times per second will record photodetector technologies are used in lidars: solid state
600,000 points every minute. Typical raw laser point spacing photodetectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or
on the ground ranges from 2 to 4 meters. photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the receiver is another
parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design.
Some LiDAR systems can record “multiple returns” from the 4. Position and navigation systems — LIDAR sensors
same pulse. In such systems the beam may hit leaves at the that are mounted on mobile platforms such as airplanes or
top of tree canopy, while part of the beam travels further and satellites require instrumentation to determine the absolute
may hit more leaves or branches. Some of the beam is then position and orientation of the sensor. Such devices generally
likely to hit the ground and be reflected back, ending up with include a Global Positioning System receiver and an Inertial
a set of recorded “multiple returns” each having an x, y, z Measurement Unit (IMU).
position. This feature can be advantageous when the

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 IV. APPLICATIONS Elastic backscatter LIDAR is the simplest type of LIDAR and
is typically used for studies of aerosols and clouds. The
backscattered wavelength is identical to the transmitted
wavelength, and the magnitude of the received signal at a
given range depends on the backscatter coefficient of
scatterers at that range and the extinction coefficients of the
scatterers along the path to that range. The extinction
coefficient is typically the quantity of interest.

Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) is used for range-

resolved measurements of a particular gas in the atmosphere,
such as ozone, carbon dioxide, or water vapor. The LIDAR
transmits two wavelengths: an "on-line" wavelength that is
Fig1:LIDAR System absorbed by the gas of interest and an off-line wavelength that
is not absorbed. The differential absorption between the two
This LIDAR-equipped mobile robot uses its LIDAR to wavelengths is a measure of the concentration of the gas as a
construct a map and avoid obstacles. function of range. DIAL LIDARs are essentially dual-
Other than those applications listed above, there are a wide wavelength elastic backscatter LIDARS.
variety of applications of LIDAR, as often mentioned
in Dataset programs. Raman LIDAR is also used for measuring the concentration
of atmospheric gases, but can also be used to retrieve aerosol
ARCHAEOLOGY parameters as well. Raman LIDAR exploits inelastic
scattering to single out the gas of interest from all other
LIDAR has many applications in the field of archaeology atmospheric constituents. A small portion of the energy of the
including aiding in the planning of field campaigns, mapping transmitted light is deposited in the gas during the scattering
features beneath forest canopy, and providing an overview of process, which shifts the scattered light to a longer
broad, continuous features that may be indistinguishable on wavelength by an amount that is unique to the species of
the ground. LIDAR can also provide archaeologists with the interest. The higher the concentration of the gas, the stronger
ability to create high-resolution digital elevation models the magnitude of the backscattered signal.
(DEMs) of archaeological sites that can reveal micro-
topography that are otherwise hidden by vegetation. LIDAR- Doppler LIDAR is used to measure wind speed along the
derived products can be easily integrated into a Geographic beam by measuring the frequency shift of the backscattered
Information System (GIS) for analysis and interpretation. For light. Scanning LIDARs, such as NASA's HARLIE LIDAR,
example at Fort Beausejour - Fort Cumberland National have been used to measure atmospheric wind velocity in a
Historic Site, Canada, previously undiscovered archaeological large three dimensional cone. ESA's wind mission ADM-
features have been mapped that are related to the siege of the Aeolus will be equipped with a Doppler LIDAR system in
Fort in 1755. Features that could not be distinguished on the order to provide global measurements of vertical wind
ground or through aerial photography were identified by profiles. A Doppler LIDAR system was used in the 2008
overlaying hill shades of the DEM created with artificial Summer Olympics to measure wind fields during the yacht
illumination from various angles. competition.[6] Doppler LIDAR systems are also now
beginning to be successfully applied in the renewable energy
With LIDAR the ability to produce high-resolution datasets sector to acquire wind speed, turbulence, wind veer and wind
quickly and relatively cheaply can be an advantage. Beyond shear data. Both pulsed and continuous wave systems are
efficiency, its ability to penetrate forest canopy has led to the being used. Pulsed systems using signal timing to obtain
discovery of features that were not distinguishable through vertical distance resolution, whereas continuous wave systems
traditional geo-spatial methods and are difficult to reach rely on detector focusing.
through field surveys.

GEOLOGY
METEOROLOGY AND ATMOSPHERIC
ENVIRONMENT In geology and seismology a combination of aircraft-based
LIDAR and GPS have evolved into an important tool for
The first LIDARs were used for studies of atmospheric detecting faults and measuring uplift. The output of the two
composition, structure, clouds, and aerosols. Initially based on technologies can produce extremely accurate elevation
ruby lasers, LIDARs for meteorological applications were models for terrain that can even measure ground elevation
constructed shortly after the invention of the laser and through trees. This combination was used most famously to
represent one of the first applications of laser technology. find the location of the Seattle in Washington, USA.[8] This

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combination is also being used to measure uplift at Mt. St.  Measure rotation
Helens by using data from before and after the 2004
uplift.[9] Airborne LIDAR systems monitor glaciers and have  Measure chemical composition and concentration
the ability to detect subtle amounts of growth or decline. A
satellite based system is NASA's ICESat which includes a
LIDAR system for this purpose. NASA's Airborne
Topographic Mapper is also used extensively to
monitor glaciers and perform coastal change analysis.

PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY

A worldwide network of observatories uses lidars to measure

the distance to reflectors placed on the moon, allowing the
moon's position to be measured with mm precision and tests
of general relativity to be done. MOLA, the Mars Orbiting
Laser Altimeter, used a LIDAR instrument in a Mars-orbiting
satellite (the NASA Mars Global Surveyor) to produce a
spectacularly precise global topographic survey of the red
planet.
In September, 2008, NASA's Phoenix Lander used LIDAR to
detect snow in the atmosphere of Mars.
In atmospheric physics, LIDAR is used as a remote detection
instrument to measure densities of certain constituents of the
middle and upper atmosphere, such as potassium, sodium, or
molecular nitrogen and oxygen. These measurements can be
used to calculate temperatures. LIDAR can also be used to
measure wind speed and to provide information about vertical
distribution of the aerosol particles.

BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

LIDAR has also found many applications

in forestry. Canopy heights, biomass measurements, and leaf
area can all be studied using airborne LIDAR systems.
Similarly, LIDAR is also used by many industries, including
Energy and Railroad, and the Department of Transportation as
a faster way of surveying. Topographic maps can also be
generated readily from LIDAR, including for recreational use
such as in the production of orienteering maps. Fig 2: Comparison of various steps involved in DTM
In oceanography, LIDAR is used for estimation generation, Photogrammetry vs. LIDAR
of phytoplankton fluorescence and generally biomass in the
surface layers of the ocean. Another application is airborne
LIDAR bathymetry of sea areas too shallow
for hydrographic vessels.
In addition, the Save-the-Redwoods League is undertaking a
project to map the tall redwoods on California's northern
coast. LIDAR allows research scientists to not only measure
the height of previously unmapped trees but to determine the
biodiversity of the redwood forest. WHAT ARE LIDAR DATA?
V. LIDAR DATA

What can you do with LIDAR?

 Measure distance

 Measure speed

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 The reflected laser light from the ground follows the reverse
optical path and is directed into a small Cassegrainian
telescope. The moving mirror produces a conical sampling
pattern beneath the aircraft over a 30-degree wide swath, thus
permitting the collection of topographic information over a
strip approximately 300 meters (about 1000 feet) in width
from the nominal 600 meter (2000 feet) data collection
altitude.
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a remote sensing
system used to collect topographic data. This technology is
being used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and NASA scientists to document
topographic changes along shorelines. These data are
collected with aircraft-mounted lasers capable of recording
elevation measurements at a rate of 2,000 to 5,000 pulses per
second and have a vertical precision of 15 centimeters (6
inches). After a baseline data set has been created, follow-up
flights can be used to detect shoreline changes.

Fig 4:Illustration of How the LIDAR Sensing Instrument

Captures Elevation Points.
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a remote sensing
system used to collect topographic data. This technology is The LIDAR instruments only collect elevation data. To make
being used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric these data spatially relevant, the positions of the data points
Administration (NOAA) and NASA scientists to document must be known. A high-precision global positioning system
topographic changes along shorelines. These data are (GPS) antenna is mounted on the upper aircraft fuselage. As
collected with aircraft-mounted lasers capable of recording the LIDAR sensor collects data points, the location of the data
elevation measurements at a rate of 2,000 to 5,000 pulses per are simultaneously recorded by the GPS sensor. After the
second and have a vertical precision of 15 centimeters (6 flight, the data are downloaded and processed using specially
inches). After a baseline data set has been created, follow-up designed computer software. The end product is accurate,
flights can be used to detect shoreline changes. geographically registered longitude, latitude, and elevation (x,
y, z) positions for every data point. These "x, y, z" data points
HOW LIDAR DATA ARE COLLECTED ? allow the generation of a digital elevation model (DEM) of
the ground surface.
For the South Carolina project, a LIDAR sensor was mounted
on-board a NOAA DeHavilland Twin Otter aircraft pictured LIDAR data sets on this CD-ROM cover an area from the low
below. Once in flight, the aircraft travels over the beach at water line to the landward base of the sand dunes. Flights are
approximately 60 meters per second. During the flight, the planned to maximize the number of elevation points collected
LIDAR sensor pulses a narrow, high frequency laser beam at the lowest tide for the largest area possible. The aircraft
toward the earth through a port opening in the bottom of the flight path is always parallel to the beach. Four passes are
aircraft's fuselage. The LIDAR sensor records the time flown over each section of the beach. Two of these passes are
difference between the emission of the laser beam and the flown so the center of the swath is over the sand/water
return of the reflected laser signal to the aircraft. interface. The other two passes are flown over the center of
the sand/development interface.
The LIDAR transceiver is rigidly fastened to the aircraft and
does not move. However, a scan mirror assembly is mounted Flights generally last four hours. Weather conditions must be
beneath the transceiver. A 45-degree folding mirror reflects monitored. The flights cannot be flown during times of rain or
the laser pulses onto a moving mirror which directs the laser fog as the water vapor in the air could cause the laser beams
pulses to the earth. to scatter and give a false reading. Additionally, the plane

Page No. 5
cannot fly during times of high winds as the returned laser features such as houses, roads, the vegetated dune area, and
pulse will not be recorded correctly. irrigation ponds.

VI. INTERPRETING LIDAR ELEVATION MAPS

In remote sensing, false color images such as LIDAR

elevation maps are common. They serve as an effective
means for visualizing data. The term "false color" refers to the
fact that these images are not photographs. Rather, they are
digital images in which each image pixel represents a data
point that is colored according to its value. The purpose of
this section is to aid users in interpreting false color images.

LIDAR beach mapping data are composed of elevation

measurements of the beach surface and are acquired through
aerial topographic surveys. The file format used to capture
and store LIDAR data is a simple text file and referred to as
"x,y,z," where x is longitude, y is latitude, and z is elevation.
Using the elevation "points," LIDAR data may be used to
create detailed topographic beach maps.

In the three images shown below, the legend in the bottom

right corner of the image has a range of numbers from -3
meters to +5 meters. The numbers indicate the relationship
between the colors on the legend and the elevations depicted
on the map. For example, in the Huntington Beach map, the
deep blue color represents land approximately at sea level or
zero elevation. The cyan (light blue) features, like the jetty,
represent elevations around 1 meter, or about 3 feet above sea Comparing Features Found in an Orthophotograph to LIDAR Data
level.

Along the South Carolina coast, beach features tend to be less

than 5 meters (16 feet). As a result, the scale of the color bar
was chosen to highlight relatively narrow variations in
elevation. This legend can be readily viewed in the PDF maps
located in the pdf/islands directory on this CD-ROM.
Additionally, this legend has been provided for use in Arc
View and is located at: data/LIDAR/avelev.shp.

In this second example, an additional vector base map was

overlaid on both the orthophoto and LIDAR elevation map.
The base map, created in 1993, includes digitized building
footprints, dune walkovers, and roads. A detailed base map
can assist in confirming features detected by LIDAR
elevation measurements. For example, when houses are
surrounded by tall vegetation, LIDAR elevation data do not
distinguish between roof top and tree top. Without the vector
base map, it would be very difficult to determine boundaries
between roofs and trees. Often ancillary data do not provide
sufficient detail or are not available. In these cases, the user
must obtain ground reference information using either local
LIDAR data become easier to interpret when examined in
knowledge or by visiting the area to accurately confirm
conjunction with additional data such as aerial photography.
landmarks.
In the example below a LIDAR elevation map is compared
with an orthophotograph. This small area on Kiawah Island
provides a variety of interesting features. Comparing the
orthophoto to the LIDAR data it becomes easier to identify

Page No. 6
 mitigation and remediation strategies. The reliability of flood
risk mapping and hydrological models is dependent on the
accuracy of the terrain elevation data used. This is especially
true for modeling in areas of little terrain relief. For example,
in a flat river basin such as the Red River in Manitoba and
North Dakota, a slight increase in water level can flood a
large area. This may mean that many communities would be
affected by a rise in water level. In areas with more relief, the
accuracy of the DEM is not as critical, but knowledge of
slope and aspect can aid considerably in predicting water
volumes and flow characteristics.

The following is an excerpt from the IJC’s final report

“Living with the Red”, and is based on the results of LiDAR
surveys done in the region:

“The Task Force found that current mapping of high risk

areas was not adequate for modeling and analysis of flood
risk, or for the consideration of flood protection options.
Among other things, the Task Force produced high-resolution
digital elevation data for the lower Pembina River and for the
area south of the Winnipeg Floodway, and analyzed data
collection technologies. Through these efforts, the Task Force
found that airborne laser mapping can be a fast, reliable, and
cost-effective method of obtaining three-dimensional data
Fig7:Example of How Vector Data Can be Useful in Identifying Features in LIDAR
suitable for Dataof a digital elevation models (DEM).”
the creation

Users can also view LIDAR data by creating a plot or profile

of the data. In the profile below the beach features including
the dune crest, beach face, and the water line can be
identified. Users that have the add-on Arc View Spatial
Analyst module can use the LIDAR Data Handler Extension,
provided on this CD-ROM, to create similar profiles.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS:

LiDAR mapping is a maturing technology, and applications

are still being identified and developed as end-users begin to
work with the data. There are on-going initiatives to identify
areas where the technology allows value-added products to be
generated or where it offers significant cost reductions over
traditional survey methods.
Fig 8:LIDAR Data Viewed as a Profile
There are a number of conclusions to be drawn from the
VII. APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES information presented herein. These deal with LiDAR
technology itself, the impact of the technology on the survey
FLOOD RISK MAPPING and mapping industry, and the societal and economic benefits
that accrue through its use. They have been presented below
LiDAR surveys are one of the quickest and most accurate in point form, in no particular order.
methods to produce a DEM. Using the LiDAR derived DEM,
hydrologists are able to predict flood extents and plan 1. LiDAR is an enabling technology. Primarily, it has
allowed data to be collected that was difficult or impossible to

Page No. 7
obtain prior to its introduction. This is especially true in the projects. Given the versatility of the technology, and its
forest industry and utility corridor arena, where it has been maturation, it seems logical that any strategic plan or project
very difficult and expensive to get elevation models using should at least consider its use. If required, more information
ground-based GPS, conventional survey and/or photogram can be obtained by contacting TerraPoint.
metric techniques.
VIII. REFERENCES
2. LiDAR is an enhancing technology. For applications
where a more precise DEM is required, such as engineering 1. Cracknell, Arthur P.; Hayes, Ladson (2007)
and road design and flood plain mapping, LiDAR is able to [1991], Introduction to Remote Sensing (2 ed.), London:
provide much more information than can be acquired by Taylor and Francis, ISBN 0849392551, OCLC 70765252
virtually any other means — at least within economic reason. 2. Experimental Advanced Research Lidar', NASA.org.
Retrieved 8 August 2007.
3. LiDAR has revolutionized the survey and mapping 3. EID; crater beneath canopy
world. In practical terms, hydrographic LiDAR has been a 4. Thomas D. Wilkerson, Geary K. Schwemmer, and
viable survey tool since the early 1980s. With the advent of a Bruce M. Gentry. Lidar Profiling of Aerosols, Clouds, and
full constellation of GPS in the early 1990s, hydrographic Winds by Doppler and Non-Doppler Methods, NASA
LiDAR has taken a giant leap forward in being able to International H2O Project (2002).
provide accurate data for difficult survey operations. 5. Earth Explorers: ADM-Aeolus', ESA.org (European
Topographic LiDAR has evolved from a relative physics Space Agency, 6 June 2007). Retrieved 8 August 2007.
experiment to a useable and reliable survey tool, all since the 6. Doppler lidar gives Olympic sailors the
mid 1990s. Now that the technological “chasm” is virtually edge', Optics.org (3 July, 2008). Retrieved 8 July 2008.
crossed, and more people are buying into LiDAR, the survey 7. a b Strauss C. E. M., "Synthetic-array heterodyne
and mapping industry is racing to meet the demand for detection: a single-element detector acts as an array", Opt.
services. This includes the industry’s ability to properly Lett. 19, 1609-1611 (1994)
acquire, process and quality control the data. 8. Tom Paulson. 'LIDAR shows where earthquake risks
are highest, Seattle Post (Wednesday, April 18, 2001).
4. LiDAR has empowered clients. The speed with
9. Mount Saint Helens Lidar Data', Washington State
which data can be collected, and the relative speed at which it
Geospatial Data Archive (September 13, 2006). Retrieved 8
can be processed compared to any other technology, has
August 2007.
given clients the power to demand products more quickly. In
many cases, time saved on surveying and mapping translates 10. Airborne Topographic Mapper', NASA.gov.
into huge downstream economic gains. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
11. NASA. 'NASA Mars Lander Sees Falling Snow, Soil
5. LiDAR saves clients money. For many projects, Data Suggest Liquid Past' NASA.gov (29 September 2008).
especially those where DEMs are required for heavily Retrieved 9 November 2008.
vegetated areas, LiDAR can greatly reduce survey time and 12. CW Gowers. ' Focus On : Lidar-Thomson Scattering
effort. This translates directly into cost savings for clients. Diagnostic on JET' JET.EFDA.org (undated). Retrieved 8
August 2007.
6. LiDAR offers flexibility. Although it can be said of
data collected via other methods, data collected by LiDAR is
extremely versatile. It can be used for anything from power
line detection to DEM generation in a second growth forest.
This is due to the tremendous point density achieved from
LiDAR, its accuracy, and its ability to penetrate to the ground
through foliage in vegetated areas.

7. LiDAR is unobtrusive and environmentally friendly.

Unlike ground survey techniques, airborne LiDAR can be
flown over areas where access is limited, impossible, or
undesirable. Apart from the need to validate the

8. LiDAR with ground truthing, it is not necessary to

send pervasive ground crews to conduct intense survey
operations. LiDAR surveying can also avoid unnecessary tree
cutting and other practices that can harm the environment.

In conclusion, it is hoped that this paper will have provided

an insight into the possibilities of LiDAR, and will elicit
discussion regarding the use of LiDAR to conduct mapping

Page No. 8