03/11/2015

Outline
SUV3206: REMOTE SENSING • Definition of terms
LIDAR • Basic operation of LiDAR
• Street mapping with LiDAR
• How LiDAR works
• Comparison between LIDAR and Photogrammetry
Dr. John R. Otukei • LiDAR point spacing
• Requirements for LiDAR
Department of Geomatics and Land • LiDAR applications
Management- Makerere University • Advantages of LiDAR
• Issues with LiDAR
• Accuracy of LiDAR
• Summary

LIDAR Differences between LiDAR and RADAR

• LiDAR is an acronym which means “Light detection and • LiDAR uses EME in the visible and Near Infra red regions
ranging. It is also sometimes refered to as LADER (VNIR)
(LASER detection and ranging) • LiDAR is nadir looking and yet RADAR is side looking
• LASER Light Amplication by stimulated Emission of • LiDAR records information as discreet points a cross the
Radiation swath and not as continuous pixels
• LiDAR is not only replacing conventional sensors, but also • LiDAR is very much affected by weather conditions since
creating new methods with unique properties that could it operates in the VNIR unlike RADAR which is more
not be achieved before weather independent
• LiDAR and RADAR are all active sensor systems
however, the have some key differences.

Basic operational principal LASER Principles

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LASER Principles How it LIDAR works

LASER light is different normal light and has the following
characteristics: • Unlike other sensors which operate in the VNIR and which
record the upwelling energy reflected by objects on the ground,
 It is monochromatic-has one wavelength
• Laser generates an optical pulse which is transmitted to the
Direction-normal light is emitted in different directions ground (active system),
which is not the case with LASER • Pulse is reflected off an object and returns to the system
 Coherent –organized. Each photon moves in steps with receiver
others • High-speed counter measures the time of flight from the start
pulse to the return pulse
• Time measurement is converted to a distance (the distance to
the target and the position of the airplane is then used to determine
the elevation and location of the object above a given reference
datum). It is also possible to generate a raster map for this points
• Multiple returns can be measured for each pulse

DTM and DSM How to determine object heights?

• The set of points from LiDAR does not define digital • Using the first and last returns or bounce.
elevation model (DEM). This is because the LiDAR pulse • LiDAR equipment operate by using two signals. One of the
is reflected by the first object it encounters and this may signals is described as the “first pulse “ or “first return” which
interacts with the objects it encounters as described before.
include: tree leaves, branches, buildings and ground Normally, this radiation is of short wavelength which can easily
surface. In other words everything that can be seen from be bounced by objects of small size e.g. leaves.
the aircraft is measured • The second signal uses a longer wavelength with high
• It is therefore possible to generate digital surface model penetrating power and can penetrate the tree leaves, branches
up to the ground. The backscattered signal is what is called
(DSM). Which shows the highest reflective object.
“last return”.
• It is however, possible to generate DTM from DSM by • What have we said, each grid cell will have to values i.e. for
removing the surface objects. first and last signals.
• When can DSM be useful in itself??? • The difference between the last and first signal gives the height
of the object

Traditional Photogrammetry vs. LiDAR

Requirements LiDAR Photogrammetric
Day or night data acquisition Day time collection only
• Aircraft (most common), vehicle, tripod or satellite
Direct acquisition of 3D Complicated and sometimes
• Flying heights from 3,000 to 6,000 ft
collection unreliable procedures
• Speeds ranging from 90 to 130 knots
Vertical accuracy is better Planimetric accuracy is
• Ability to carry equipment, personnel than planimetric* better than vertical*
and full fuel load Point cloud difficult to derive Rich in semantic information
• Differentially-corrected GPS semantic information;
• Inertial measurement unit (IMU) however, intensity values
• Computer can be used to produce a
visually rich image like
product (example of an
intensity image)
*Complementary characteristics suggest integration

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Point spacing of LiDAR Applications

• LIDAR has significant fixed cost… but can be very cost
effective for large projects
• Appropriate for a wide range of projects including, DEM generation,
forestry, corridor studies, obstruction mapping, flood studies,
city/county mapping, and transportation projects, Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs) and its derivatives (slope, aspect, contours e.t.c)
• Required accuracy must be carefully evaluated

Street mapping with LiDAR DEM generation

Forest applications Advantages

Very fast and cost effective method of collecting point
data for larger projects.
Does not provide break lines, nor is it imagery
Provides a highly accurate means of elevation model
collection for 2- 5 contours
Acquisition can take place day or night… shadows that
are problematic in mountainous areas are not an issue
with LiDAR
Unlike photography, acquisition can take place below
cloud cover… cloud shadows no issue
Suitable for had to reach areas ( such as forested areas)

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Issues with LIDAR LiDAR accuracy

• Accuracy of elevation in range of 6 to 30 centimeters (0.20 to 0.98
• LIDAR is indiscriminate… it places elevation points on
feet)
everything. This includes cars, houses, trees, etc. • Accuracy of XY position in range of 10 to 46 centimeters (0.33 to 1.51
• LIDAR only places mass points, or random xyz points. It feet)
• Underestimate tree heights by 0.5 to 2 m . Error is species dependent
does NOT pick up breaklines, or lines of abrupt change in
the ground elevation • Accuracy depends on:
• LIDAR is NOT imagery. LIDAR data can be shaded,  Pulse rate
however, to offer a relief image  flying height,
 GPS configuration
 Location of ground stations
 Frequency
 position of the scanner with respect to nadir
 Quality of the hardware and software
 Knowledge of the planners, operators, office staff
 Scan angles

Dust and vapour summary

• Laser measurements can be weakened by interacting • LiDAR another tool in our toolbox for determing elevations
with dust and vapor particles, which scatter the laser • It is not right for every project, but it can provide
beam and the signal returning from the target substantial cost savings for the right project
• Large-scale, high-accuracy projects still require
• Using last-pulse measurements can reduce or eliminate conventional mapping solution
this interference • LIDAR and the software we use in processing will
continue to improve with time
• Systems that are expected to work in such conditions
• Opportunities for data fusion
regularly can be optimized for these environments
• There are still questions on the horizontal and vertical
accuracy