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SOR Model

SOR Model for Behavioral Research

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Hameem Khan
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674 views4 pages

SOR Model

SOR Model for Behavioral Research

Uploaded by

Hameem Khan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 2

The S-O-R-Model

Abstract The realistic S-O-R-model is presented. This model simply pictures that
stimulation and human behavior (reaction, action) are linked by an organismic
component. The structures and processes that constitute this component are bio-
logical (sense organs, nervous system, muscular system) and psychological.
Psychological analyses are guided by scientific concepts such as learning, per-
ception, emotion, motivation and thinking. A more general concept is mental
activity that can be subdivided into mental states (emotions, imagery, thoughts) and
mental processes (judgment, thinking, appealing to oneself, asking oneself) as a
function of stimulation, motivation, experience, and knowledge. Perception and
mental activity that are based on the activity of neural systems are core components
of self-regulation in the course of interactions with objects, machines, animals, or
persons. Self-regulation is the coordination of actual states (ongoing stimulation,
mental states) with desired or necessary states. The desired or necessary state is the
dominant motive (basic value, need, commandment, duty, or interest).

The most suitable theoretical background for basic psychological and psychiatric
concepts is the S-O-R (stimulus-organism-response) extension of the behavioristic
S-R formulation that was proposed by Woodworth in 1954 (Royce 1967).
Figure 2.1 shows the general form. But which attributes characterize a contempo-
rary version of the model?
The S-O-R-model is a realistic model (like a model of an architect). The question
is what is located between S and R, and what happens between S and R.
A neurobiologist would answer that the sense organs, the nervous system and the
muscular system are located between stimuli and behavior and that these systems
interact in a lawful way. The processes involved are mainly influenced by the
existing stimulation, for example temperature, light, tones or words. According to
psychology, it is necessary to distinguish between innate and learned behavior.
Learned behavior is predominantly based on stimulation and perceptual learning
(Sect. 3.2). With reference to the S-O-R-model, psychological structures and pro-
cesses can be analyzed that mediate between stimulation and behavior. Such
analyses are guided by the use of appropriate concepts. For example, if a child

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 7


O. Buxbaum, Key Insights into Basic Mechanisms of Mental Activity,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29467-4_2
8 2 The S-O-R-Model

Fig. 2.1 The general S-O-R-model (S = stimulation, O = organism, R = behavior)

recognizes an object as a rose, then we can speak of perception. Other important


scientific concepts (constructs) that are used to indicate an intermediation between
stimulation and behavior are emotion, motivation, attitude or reasoning.
The S-O-R-model can also be a useful reference system for the concept of
personality and for subcategories such as education or personality traits (e.g.,
extraversion, neuroticism). This is not the place, however, to discuss the variety of
controversial theories of personality. Here is only important that evidence indicates
that human behavior is not simply determined by the environment or by traits or by
additive environment-trait-interactions (e.g., Bandura 1999; Barrett 2006; Mischel
2004; Wegner and Vallacher 1977, pp. 68–74).
Determination of behavior by additive environment-trait-interactions would
mean that valid measures of a trait (e.g., an anxiety test) and valid measures of
situations that are relevant for this trait (e.g., a listing of more or less
anxiety-releasing situations) are sufficient to predict the behavior of single persons.
For example, people with a very low anxiety score will behave always less anx-
iously than persons with a very high anxiety score. In a threateningly situation, both
groups of persons will behave more anxiously than in a situation that is harmlessly.
However, non-additive environment-trait-interactions are very common. This
means that the human behavior is usually a complex function of interacting factors.
With respect to the S-O-R-model, the most general factors are the stimuli (S), which
are material (e.g., luminosity, light), organic (e.g., stomach pains) or social (e.g., a
facial expression), and the organismic component (O). Psychological concepts that
indicate functions of the organismic component include perception, emotion, judg-
ment, thinking, and motivation. The best example of the interaction of the stimulation
with the organismic component is the ambiguity of stimuli, that is, of an object, a
machine, an animal or a person. Often the ambiguity of stimuli is even inevitable. The
interpretation depends on various factors, including the stimulus context, some form
of social priming, the level of arousal, experience, motivation, and thinking (the
search for a proper interpretation). Consequently, the interpretation influences the
emotional state, the motivation to interact and the resulting behavior. In the case of an
interaction with another person, the behavior that is based on the interpretation of an
ambiguous stimulus acts as a social stimulus that is clear or ambiguous. This influ-
ences the further progress of the communication. Essentially, this means the
occurrence, resolving or avoiding of disturbances (disorders, conflicts).
Contrary to additive environment-trait-interactions, non-additive environment-
trait-interactions reduce the practical usefulness of personality tests considerably.
Furthermore, basic traits such as intelligence, aggressiveness, neuroticism, and
2 The S-O-R-Model 9

anxiety cannot be defined in an objective way such as temperature, mass, or other


physical values. In addition, the classification of mental disorders is controversial
(Sect. 6.2.1). Therefore, a fundamental modification of clinical practice is necessary
(Sect. 6.2).
In any case, perception and mental activity are influential links between stim-
ulation (S) and action (R). The goal of neural science is to understand the biological
mechanisms that account for mental activity (Albright et al. 2000). An overview of
possible forms of mental activity is the basis for a converging psychological and
neurobiological analysis of essential structures and processes.
Mental life consists of mental states (emotions, imagery, thoughts) and mental
processes (judgment, thinking, appealing to oneself, asking oneself) as a function of
stimulation (material, organic, social), motivation, experience, and knowledge.
Mental states, however, can also be influenced by mental processes. Pondering, for
example, can lead to negative emotions.
Perception, mental states and mental processes that are based on the activity of
neural systems are core components of self-regulation in the course of interactions
with objects, machines, animals, or persons (Sects. 3.1–3.3).
Self-regulation is the coordination of actual states (ongoing stimulation, mental
states) with desired or necessary states (dominant motives). The dominant motive
determines the behavior (Sect. 6.1). This definition is broader than the usual defi-
nition. Usually self-regulation is defined synonymously to self-control (Bandura
1999; Carver and Scheier 2011; Carver et al. 2000; Karoly 1993). Self-regulation
that is automatic or controlled (reflective) is mainly a function of the prefrontal
cortex (Sects. 3.3.4 and 5.6).
By reference to the S–O–R-model, it became clear that information processing is
some form of feature processing (e.g., Anderson 1962, 1981). The assumption of
information integration (mental, neural and neuro-mental computation by algebraic
rules), however, is not correct. Section 3.4 proves that the brain does not employ
algebraic rules in the field of perceptual processing and in other fields. Chapters 4
and 5 provide new insights into various valid modes of feature processing, including
the judgment process, an empirical foundation of scales for stimuli with qualitative
or quantitative features as well as the effects of neuronal feature detectors and of
features of memory structures.
The understanding of the principles, functions, and neural basis of perception,
mental processes, and self-regulation leads to conclusions about the causes of
behavior and has implications for psychiatric nosology and practice (Chap. 6).
http://www.springer.com/978-3-319-29466-7

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