Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St.

Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #1 - Introduction To Probability
Pre –Requisite Skills

Fractions – (from Latin: fractus, "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any
number of equal parts. A fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for
example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters.

A simple fraction (examples: and 17/3) consists of an integer numerator, displayed

above a line (or before a slash), and a non-zero integer denominator, displayed below (or after)
that line. Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common,
including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.
Why are fractions important?
All good recipes are based on fractions. You need a certain portion of ingredients to be flour in
a cake, brown sugar in a pork rib rub, or salt in your omelet.

Fractions are a necessity and occur in everything. Notably; tool sizes, wrench and drill bits, and other units of
measurement.

Equivalent Fractions
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same (non-zero) number results
in a fraction that is equivalent to the original fraction, and represents the same value

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Ratios - the quantitative relation between two amounts showing the number of
times one value contains or is contained within the other, or compared to another.

Random – lacking any definite plan or order or purpose; governed by or depending

on chance; "a random choice"; "bombs fell at random"; "random movements"
Non-Random – proceeding, made, or occurring with an aim, reason, or pattern that
will result in making selections that offer an un-equal likelihoods of certain events
occurring.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #1.1 – Simple Probabilities
Probability
– the likelihood of something occurring, to be represented as a decimal. ( i.e. .20 )

The probability of an event is the measure of the chance that the event will occur as a result of
an experiment. The probability of an event A is the number of ways event A can occur divided
by the total number of possible outcomes. The probability of an event A, symbolized by P(A),
is a number between 0 and 1, inclusive, that measures the likelihood of an event in the
following way:

 If P(A) > P(B) then event A is more likely to occur than event B.
 If P(A) = P(B) then events A and B are equally likely to occur.

P(A) cannot exceed 100% or 1.0 nor can P(A) be less than 0% or 0.0.

**Both cases are overused mathematical impossibilities that frustrate statisticians.

Outcome
– a possible result of an experiment. (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 – all possible results when rolling a die)

Experimental Probability - is an "estimate" that the event will happen based on how often the event
occurs after collecting data or running an experiment (in a large number of trials). It is based
specifically on direct observations or experiences.
– the probability based on experimental trials
– the number of times an outcome happens divided by total number of trials.
– Sometimes called statistical probability or empirical probability.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Empirical Probability Formula Example: A survey was conducted to determine
students' favorite breeds of dogs. Each student
chose only one breed.

Dog Collie Spaniel Lab Boxer PitBull Other

P(E) = probability that an event, E, will occur. # 10 15 35 8 5 12

top = total number of ways the specific event What is the probability that a student's favorite dog
occurs. Represented by n(e), which means the breed is Lab?
“number of ways that e can occur.” Answer: 35 out of the 85 students chose Lab. The

bottom = number of ways the experiment could probability is .

occur. Represented by n(S), where S represents the
Sample Space. n(s) which means the “the total
number of ways that anything can occur.”

In Class Examples of Experimental Probability

Question #1  Sam rolled a number cube 50 times. A 3 appeared 10 times.
What is the experimental probability of rolling a 3?

Answer #1 The experimental probability of rolling a 3 is 10 out of

50 or 20%.

Question #2  A coin is tossed 60 times. 27 times head appeared. Find the

experimental probability of getting heads.

Choices:
A. B. C. D.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Experiment 1: A spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow,

blue, green and red. After spinning the
spinner, what is the probability of landing on
each color?

Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are

yellow, blue, green, and red.

Probabilities: # of ways to land on yellow 1

P(yellow) = =
total # of colors 4

# of ways to land on blue 1

P(blue) = =
total # of colors 4

# of ways to land on green 1

P(green) = =
total # of colors 4

# of ways to land on red 1

P(red) = =
total # of colors 4

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Experiment 2: A single 6-sided die is rolled. What is the probability of each
outcome? What is the probability of rolling an even number?
of rolling an odd number?

Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

and 6.

Probabilities: # of ways to roll a 1 1

P(1) = =
total # of sides 6

# of ways to roll a 2 1
P(2) = =
total # of sides 6

# of ways to roll a 3 1
P(3) = =
total # of sides 6

# of ways to roll a 4 1
P(4) = =
total # of sides 6

# of ways to roll a 5 1
P(5) = =
total # of sides 6

# of ways to roll a 6 1
P(6) = =
total # of sides 6

# ways to roll an even number 3 1

P(even) = = =
total # of sides 6 2

# ways to roll an odd number 3 1

P(odd) = = =
total # of sides 6 2

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Experiment 2 illustrates the difference between an outcome and an event.
A single outcome of this experiment is rolling a 1, or rolling a 2, or rolling a 3, etc.
Rolling an even number (2, 4 or 6) is an “event”, and rolling an odd number (1, 3 or
5) is also a different “event”.
In Experiment 1 the probability of each outcome is always the same. The probability
of landing on each color of the spinner is always .25. In Experiment 2, the probability
of rolling each number on the die is always 1/6=.167. This is “Uniform Probability”.

Experiment A glass jar contains 6 red, 5 green, 8 blue and 3 yellow

3: marbles. If a single marble is chosen at random from the jar,
what is the probability of choosing a red marble? a green
marble? a blue marble? a yellow marble?

Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are red, green, blue
and yellow.

Probabilities : # of ways to choose red 6 3

P(red) = = =
total # of marbles 22 11

# of ways to choose green 5

P(green) = =
total # of marbles 22

# of ways to choose blue 8 4

P(blue) = = =
total # of marbles 22 11

# of ways to choose yellow 3

P(yellow) = =
total # of marbles 22
**The outcomes in this experiment are not equally likely to occur. You are more likely to choose a blue
marble than any other color. You are least likely to choose a yellow marble.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Experiment Choose a number at random from 1 to 5. What is the probability of each

4: outcome? What is the probability that the number chosen is even? What is
the probability that the number chosen is odd?

Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Probabilities: # of ways to choose a 1 1

P(1) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose a 2 1
P(2) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose a 3 1
P(3) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose a 4 1
P(4) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose a 5 1
P(5) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose an even number 2

P(even) = =
total # of numbers 5

# of ways to choose an odd number 3

P(odd) = =
total # of numbers 5

The outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are equally likely to occur as a result of this experiment.
However, the events even and odd are not equally likely to occur, since there are 3 odd
numbers and only 2 even numbers from 1 to 5.
 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Sum of Probabilities = 1.0

It is important to note that in each of the given examples that the final
sum of all the probabilities equals 1.0 if 100% of the viable outcomes / events
are accounted for. If they are not properly accounted for then complete
representation has not occurred.

Subjective Probability - reflects personal belief which involves personal judgment,

information, intuition, etc. It is based on very little, if any, mathematical data.
For example,
What is P (Penn State will win the next football game)?
Each person may have a different answer to the question.

Representing Probability

There are several ways to visually represent probability. Bar graphs, pie charts and
scatter plots are just a few practical mediums of note.

How many wanted apples? How many wanted bananas?

What was the probability that someone wanted anything but oranges?

What was the probability that someone wanted grapes or bananas?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Data was taken from the game

“Warlight”.

What does this graph tell you?

The rest of this page is bacon related. Your argument is invalid.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #1.2 – Theoretical Probabilities
Theoretical Probability - of an event is the number of ways that the event can
occur, divided by the total number of outcomes. It is finding the probability of
events that come from a sample space of known equally likely outcomes.

Theoretical Probability Formula Example 1: Find the probability of

rolling a six on a fair die.

Answer: The sample space for rolling

P(E) = probability that an event, E, will is die is 6 equally likely results: {1, 2,
occur. 3, 4, 5, 6}.
The probability of rolling a 6 is one
n(E) = number of equally likely
outcomes of E. out of 6 or .
n(S) = number of equally likely
outcomes of sample space S.

Sample Space- collection of ALL possible

outcomes, sometimes referred to as the
sample set.

Example 2: In a single “fair” coin toss, find the probability of heads.

The sample space … S = {h, t}, Sought event … E = {h}, Since one of two
possible outcomes is a head, the probability of heads is the quotient of 1 and 2.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Example 3: Find the probability of tossing a fair die and getting an odd number.
Answer:
event E : tossing an odd number
outcomes in E: {1, 3, 5}
sample space S: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Event –set of outcomes that have a common characteristic assigned. In the example
above we see that one event’s set of outcomes for odd {1,3,5} is different from the
event set for even {2,4,6}.

Complement – set of possible outcomes not included in an event.

The odd event’s set {1,3,5} is the complement for the even event set {2,4,6}.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Odds in favor – ratio of the probability that an event will happen to the probability
that it will not.

Odds
The "odds" in favor of an event is the ratio of the number of ways the
outcome CAN occur to the number of ways the outcome CANNOT occur.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
1) The possibility of rain today is 40%.
a) Find the odds that it will rain today. Answer: _________

b) Find the odds that it will not rain today. Answer: _________

Odds against – ratio of the probability that an event will not happen over the
probability that it will.

The odds against winning are found by calculating:

Let A be the event of winning (i.e. A' is the event of losing).

The odds against winning (i.e. the odds the horse will lose) are 9:1. We usually say the 'odds on' to win are
9:1.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Odds Worksheet

1. A single coin is tossed.

a) What is the probability of tossing a head?

b) What are the odds of tossing a head?

c) What are the odds of tossing a tail?

2. Mel has 5 quarters and six dimes in his pocket. He pulls out a coin.

a) What are the odds in favor of the coin being a quarter?

b) What are the odds in favor of the coin being a dime?

3. Suppose you have a bag with 3 white balls, 7 green balls and 5 red balls. You randomly select one.

a) What are the odds of selecting a red ball?

b) What are the odds of not selecting a red ball?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
4. You roll a die.

a) What are the odds of rolling a number greater than 3?

b) What are the odds of rolling a multiple of 2?

c) What are the odds of rolling a number that is not a 4?

d) What are the odds of rolling a number divisible by 3?

5. If the probability of an event occurring is 2/3, what are the odds of the event occurring?

6. If the probability of an event occurring is 2/7, what are the odds of the even occurring?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
7. If the odds in favor of an event occurring are 7:5, what is the probability of the event occurring?

8. If the odds against an event occurring are 9:14, what is the probability of the event occurring?

9. Justin places a bet on the Giants to win the Superbowl. The odds are 2:3.

a) Are the Giants expected to win? Why or why not?

b) Find P(Giants win) =

c) If Justin’s bet is $20, how much would he win if the Giants won?

10. Zack places a bet on the Canucks to make it to the 4th round of playoffs. The probability of that happening
according to ProLine is 4/5.

a) Are the Canucks expected to make it to the 4th round? Why or why not?

b) What are the odds of the Canucks making it to the 4th round?

c) If Zack’s bet is $15, how much would he win if the Canucks make it to the 4th round?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
d) If Ian places a $15 bet that the Canucks won’t make it, how much would he make?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Chapter #1.3 – Comparing Empirical and Theoretical

Probabilities
Karen and Jason roll two dice 50 times and record their Sum of the rolls of two dice

results in the accompanying chart. 3, 5, 5, 4, 6, 7, 7, 5, 9, 10,

1.) What is their empirical probability of rolling a 7? 12, 9, 6, 5, 7, 8, 7, 4, 11, 6,
2.) What is the theoretical probability of rolling a 7? 8, 8, 10, 6, 7, 4, 4, 5, 7, 9,
9, 7, 8, 11, 6, 5, 4, 7, 7, 4,
3.) How do the empirical and theoretical probabilities
3, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 6, 7, 8, 9
compare?

Solution:
1.) Empirical probability (experimental probability or observed
probability) is 13/50 = 26%.
2.) Theoretical probability (based upon what is possible when working
with two dice) = 6/36 = 1/6 = 16.7% (check out the table at the right of
possible sums when rolling two dice).
3.) Karen and Jason rolled more 7's than would be expected
theoretically.

Theoretical Probability Formula

If all outcomes in a sample space S are equally likely, and E is an event within that sample space, then the
theoretical probability of event E is given by

Empirical Probability Formula

If E is an event that may happen when an experiment is performed, then the empirical probability of event E is
given by

In short, Empirical/Experimental involves real world testing, while theoretical is book based.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Chapter #1.4 – Mutually Exclusive vs Non-Mutually Exclusive

Mutually Exclusive Events – events that have different attributes, cannot occur
simultaneously.

Probability of Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events

If x and y are independent events and mutually exclusive events, find the
probability that either event x or event y will occur by adding the two probabilities
together.

Example

From a bag containing 5 white balls, 2 black balls, and 11 red balls, 1 ball is
drawn. What is the probability that the ball drawn is either black or red?

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Non-Mutually Exclusive events – different events that can happen at the same
time.

Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion – If A and B are non-mutually exclusive

events, then the probability of favorable outcomes is:

Probability of Independent and not Mutually Exclusive Events

If x and y are independent but not mutually exclusive events, add the probability that each event occurs
individually and subtract the probability that both events occur together.

Example

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Mutually Exclusive/ Non-Mutually Exclusive Worksheet

Determine if each event is mutually exclusive or non-mutually exclusive. Then determine
the probability of each.

1. Find the probability of choosing a penny or a dime from 4 pennies, 3 nickels and 6 dimes.

2. Find the probability of selecting a boy or a blond-haired person from 12 girls, 5 of whom
have blond hair, and 15 boys, 6 of whom have blond hair.

3. Find the probability of drawing a king or queen from a standard deck of cards.

4. The probability for a driver’s license applicant to pass the road test the first time is 5/6. The
probability of passing the written test on the first attempt is 9/10. The probability of passing
both test the first time is 4/5. Are the events mutually exclusive? What is the probability of
passing either test on the first attempt?

5. Find the probability of tossing two dice and showing at least one 4.

6. Find the probability of selecting an ace or a red card from a deck of cards.

7. Determine the probability that a card drawn from a deck is red or a face card.

8. Find the probability of two dice being tossed and showing a sum of 6 or a sum of 9.

9. A weather forecaster states that the probability of rain is 3/5, the probability of lightning is
2/5, and the probability of both is 1/5. What is the probability of a sporting event being
cancelled due to rain or lightning?

10. A bag contains cards numbered from 1 to 14. One card is drawn at random. Find the
probability of:
a) selecting a prime number or a multiple of four.
b) selecting a multiple of two or a multiple of three.
c) selecting a 3 or a 4.
d) selecting an 8 or a number less than 8.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Chapter #1.5 – Independent and Dependent Events

Compound Events
- multiple events in a probability experiment.
- occur together; may or may not affect each other.
Multiplicative Counting Principle
(Fundamental Counting Principle) for Independent events
If A and B are two independent events in a probability experiment, then the
probability that both events occur simultaneously is:

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Multiplication Rule in Probability
Example 1: You have a cowboy hat, a top hat, and an Indonesian hat called a
songkok. You also have four shirts: white, black, green, and pink. If you choose one
hat and one shirt at random, what is the probability that you choose the songkok and
the black shirt?
The two events are independent events; the choice of hat has no effect on the choice
of shirt.
There are three different hats, so the probability

of choosing the songkok is . There are four

different shirts, so the probability of choosing the

black shirt is . So, by the Multiplication Rule:

Independent Events
- for situations in which the occurrence or non-occurrence of one event has
no influence on the probability of the other event occurring.

Dependent Events
- the occurrence or non-occurrence of one event influences the probability of
the other event occurring.
Conditional Probability
- probability of a second event occurring, given that a first event occurred
 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
- the sample space for the second event is reduced from the first event.

In case of dependent events, the probability that both events occur simultaneously
is:

(The notation means "the probability of B, given that A has happened.")

Example 2: Suppose you take out two cards from a standard pack of cards one
after another, without replacing the first card. What is probability that the first card
is the ace of spades, and the second card is a heart?
The two events are dependent events because the first card is not replaced. There is
only one ace of spades in a deck of 52 cards. So:

If the ace of spaces is drawn first, then there are 51 cards left in the deck, of which
13 are hearts:

So, by the multiplication rule of probability, we have:

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
In summary –
And (Implies Multiplication) Or (Implies Addition)
What is the probability of landing a head with a What is the probability of landing a head with a
Independent- coin, and rolling a 4 with a throw of a die? coin, or rolling a 4 with a throw of a die?
Deals with sets
that have no = P ( Heads ) and P( Rolling a 4 with a die ) = P ( Heads ) or P( Rolling a 4 with a die )
effect on one 𝑁(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠) 𝑁(4) 𝑁(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠) 𝑁(4)
another. i.e. = × = +
𝑁(𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛) 𝑁(𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐷𝑖𝑐𝑒) 𝑁(𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛) 𝑁(𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐷𝑖𝑐𝑒)
{Heads, Tails} vs
{1,2,3,4,5,6} 1 1 1 1
= × = +
2 6 2 6
1 3 1
= = +
12 6 6
4 2
= =
6 3
What is the probability of drawing a Spade Ace What is the probability of drawing a face card, or
Dependent from a deck, and then, without replacing the card a heart?
Deals with sets to the deck, drawing a Heart?
that have = P ( Face Cards) or P ( Hearts )
overlapping = P ( Spade Ace ) and P ( Heart after the Spade Ace)
= P ( Face ) + P( Hearts ) – P( Face Heart )
elements. i.e. = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃 ( 𝐵⃓ 𝐴 )
Cards - {Aces} 𝑁(𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒) 𝑁(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠) 𝑁(𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠)
𝑁(𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑠) = + −
vs {Faces} vs 𝑁(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠) 𝑁(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠) 𝑁(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)
=
{Hearts} 𝑁(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘)
𝑁(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠) 12 13 3
× = + −
𝑁(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤) 52 52 52
22 11
1 13 = =
= + 52 26
52 51
13
=
2652
1
=
204

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #2 –Permutations
Chapter #2.1 – Organized Counting
By organizing our data we better understand,
manipulate and wield it.
Flow Charts - A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm,
workflow or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order
by connecting them with arrows.

Charts like these better help us understand the relationships occurring.

Tree Diagrams - Probability Tree Diagrams

Calculating probabilities can be hard, sometimes you add them, sometimes you
multiply them, and often it is hard to figure out what to do ... tree diagrams help
simplify problems!

Here is a tree diagram for the toss of a coin:

There are two "branches" (Heads and Tails)

 The probability of each branch is written on

the branch
 The outcome is written at the end of the
branch

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
We can extend the tree diagram to two tosses of a coin:

How do you calculate the overall probabilities?

 You multiply probabilities along the branches

 You add probabilities down columns

Now we can see such things as:

 The probability of "Head, Head" is 0.5×0.5 = 0.25

 All probabilities add to 1.0 (which is always a good check)
 The probability of getting at least one Head from two tosses is
0.25+0.25+0.25 = 0.75
 ... and more

That was a simple example using independent events (each toss of a coin is
independent of the previous toss), but tree diagrams are really wonderful for
figuring out dependent events (where an event depends on what happens in the
previous event) like this following example:

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Example: Soccer Game

You are off to soccer, and love being the Goalkeeper, but that depends who is the
Coach today:

 with Coach Sam the probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.5

 with Coach Alex the probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.3

Sam is Coach more often ... about 6 out of every 10 games (a probability of 0.6).

So, what is the probability you will be a Goalkeeper today?

Let's build the tree diagram. First we show the two possible coaches: Sam or Alex:

The probability of getting Sam is 0.6, so the probability of Alex must be 0.4
(together the probability is 1)

Now, if you get Sam, there is 0.5 probability of being Goalie (and 0.5 of not being
Goalie):

If you get Alex, there is 0.3 probability of being Goalie (and 0.7 not):

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

The tree diagram is complete, now let's calculate the overall probabilities. This is
done by multiplying each probability along the "branches" of the tree.

Here is how to do it for the "Sam, Yes" branch:

(When we take the 0.6 chance of Sam being coach and include the 0.5 chance that
Sam will let you be Goalkeeper we end up with an 0.3 chance.)

But we are not done yet! We haven't included Alex as Coach:

An 0.4 chance of Alex as Coach, followed by an 0.3 chance gives 0.12.

Now we add the column:

0.3 + 0.12 = 0.42 probability of being a Goalkeeper today

(That is a 42% chance)

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Check

One final step: complete the calculations and make sure they add to 1:

0.3 + 0.3 + 0.12 + 0.28 = 1

Yes, it all adds up.

Conclusion

So there you go, when in doubt draw a tree diagram, multiply along the
branches and add the columns. Make sure all probabilities add to 1 and you
are good to go.

You can illustrate a sequence of events using multiple methods, including

a list, a chart, and a tree diagram.
In a tree diagram, each stage in the event is illustrated with a new set of
branches extending from the end of each branch in the previous stage.
To identify a given outcome in a tree diagram, read across a distinct path.
To determine the number of outcomes in a tree diagram, count the
number of distinct end paths across the tree diagram.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #2.2 – Fundamental Counting Principle
Fundamental Counting Principle – If one event can occur in m ways and a
second event can occur in n ways, then together they can occur in ( m x n ) ways.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
A simple equation that becomes handy is
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 = 𝒏(𝑺)𝑻
S = the sample n( S ) = the number of terms in the sample
T = the total number of tiers in the tree, or number of compounded trials

Here we see that there are 8 compound outcomes for three trials.
This can easily be done by hand. But … some are too time consuming or
difficult to readily do by hand.
How many outcomes are possible with 14 trials of a coin?
𝒏(𝑺)𝑻 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒
How many possible outcomes are there for 20 True and false questions?
𝒏(𝑺)𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎
How many possible outcomes for 10 Multiple Choice with A,B,C,D?
𝒏(𝑺)𝑻 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎
How many possible outcomes for 7 rolls of a six sided dice?
𝒏(𝑺)𝑻 = 𝟔𝟕

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #2.3 – Permutations and Factorials
Arrangement – an ordered list of items.
Factorial – a product of sequential natural numbers with the form.
n factorial (written n!) is defined as:

n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) ... 3 × 2 × 1
Counting Down Method: Start with the number 5, and count down until you
reach 1. Then multiply those numbers to get the answer.

Counting Up Method: Or, you may do it the other way around. Begin by
counting from 1 until you reach the target number which in this case is 5.
Multiply those factors to obtain the answer.

Permutation
– an arrangement of n distinct items in a definite order.
– The total number of these permutations is written as the number of
permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time,
o denoted by P ( n, r ) where repetitions are not allowed, is given by
𝑛
P ( n, r ) =𝑛 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃
𝑟

𝑛!
= n ( n – 1 )( n – 2 ) ... ( n – r + 1 ) = (
𝑛 − 𝑟 )!

** Notes ** 𝑷 ( 𝒏, 𝒏) =n! ( since 0! = 1 )

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Example 1: Simplify .
We expand the numerator and denominator using the definition of
factorial. That means, count down from 9 to 1 for the numerator,
and 7 to 1 for the denominator. Cancel out common factors in the
numerator and denominator to simplify.

Alternative solution: Do we really need to fully expand the

factorial? The answer is no. The better approach is expand 9! until
it reaches 7! because that is the factorial value in the denominator.
This would allow us to cancel them out easily leaving us with less
clutter in the calculation.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Simplify .

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Worksheet: Counting using Permutations - Short Answer
1. In how many ways can a set of eight books be arranged on a shelf so that volumes one and
two are beside one another?

2. Norma is creating a new game that has 15 different cards. In how many different ways can
you deal out 5 cards from Norma’s deck?

3. You flip a coin six times. In how many different orders can two heads and four tails occur?

4. In how many ways could you arrange a display of stationery supplies consisting of 14
notebooks, 5 reams of lined paper, and 50 pens if all the items are laid out in a row?

5. In how many different orders can two blue flags and four red flags be attached to the rope on
a flagpole?

6. In how many different orders can you arrange all the letters of the word parallel?

7. In how many ways can you arrange all the letters of the name OCONTO?

8. How many permutations of the word committee begin or end with an e?

9. In anticipation of a lunchtime rush, a small cafe has made seven egg-salad sandwiches, five
tuna sandwiches, and six ham sandwiches, along with nine garden salads and six Caesar salads.
In how many ways can this food be displayed in a single row on the counter?

10. Find the number of permutations of all the letters of the word lancers that satisfy each of the
following conditions.

a) The letters can be in any order.

b) The third letter must be n.

c) The letters r and s must be adjacent.

d) The letters r and s are separated by only one letter.

e) The letters r and s must be adjacent while the letters a and n must be separated.

11. You are setting up a system of programming codes for a universal TV remote. Each code
will have five digits and cannot include a 0 or repeat any digits. How many codes

a) do not contain a 7?
 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

b) have 3 as the third digit and 5 as the fifth digit?

c) begin with an even number?

d) begin and end with an even number?

12. A university has a telephone system in which extension numbers are three digits long with
no repeated digits and no 0s. The university has 492 telephones at present and is planning to add
another 35 in the near future.

a) Should the university change its system? Why or why not?

b) The Drama Department uses extensions that begin with 3. How many extensions can
the Drama Department have with the current system?

13. You work as a health inspector and must visit each of the 15 restaurants in town once each
week.

a) In how many different orders can you make these inspections?

b) If you were to work 50 weeks a year and use a different order every week, how long
would it take you to try all of the different possible orders?

14. Lisa is planning the seating for the head table at a gala. The eight speakers will all be seated
along one side of the table. Richard wants to sit beside Hang, and Lisa knows that Thomas and
Lily should not be seated together, as they have just broken up. In how many ways can Lisa
make up the seating plan? Explain your reasoning. You are thinking of using some leftover
ceramic tiles to make a decorative border for a patio. You have ten blue, four gold, and six
white tiles.

15. In how many ways can you make the border if you must use all the tiles to put a single row
along the edge of the patio? Show how you arrive at your answer.

16. In how many ways can you make the border if it requires 15 tiles and you use only blue and
white ones? Explain your reasoning.

17. In how many ways can make the border if you use a total of six gold and white tiles and you
want to use more gold than white? Explain your reasoning.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #2.4 – The Rule of Sum
Direct Method
– Collect and sum up all of the desired outcomes together to find their
number.
Adding up all the terms in set A,

Indirect method
– Subtract the number of unwanted outcomes from the total number of
outcomes found within the entire sample, without restrictions. That resulting
difference will represent the number of desired outcomes.
If you sum up all the terms found outside of set A, and
subtract them from the sample S, then you are left with
A. Sometimes this method is much more efficient.
It takes longer to count 28 boys (directly) in a class,
than subtracting the 2 girls from the class list of 30.
Example #1
Use the direct method and the indirect method to solve for the number of terms in A

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #2.5 – Probability Problems Using Permutations
Things to remember:
• When dealing with probability and permutations, it is important to know if the problem deals
with replacement, or without replacement.

For example, "with replacement" would be drawing an ace from a deck of cards and then
replacing the ace in the deck before drawing a second card. "Without replacement" would be
drawing the ace and not replacing it in the deck before drawing the second card.

• Don't forget to use the counting principle for many compound events. It is fast and easy.

• Probability formula: Where n(S) is the number of

elements in the space and n(E) is the
number of outcomes in the event.

Examples:
1. Two cards are drawn at random from a standard deck of 52 cards, without
replacement. What is the probability that both cards drawn are queens?

event the way to draw 2 cards out of a possible 4 queens

total the way to draw 2 cards from a deck of 52 cards

= 4·3 = 12 = 1
52·51 2652 221

2. Mrs. Schultzkie has to correct papers for three different classes: Algebra, Geometry,
and Trig. If Mrs. Schultzkie corrects the papers for each class at random, what is the probability
she corrects Algebra papers first?

There is only one way to correct Algebra papers first.

Then, there are 2P2 ways to correct the other two sets of papers.
The "total" - three class sets of papers 3P3 .

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

= 1· 2· 1 = 2 = 1
3· 2· 1 6 3

3. A card is drawn from a deck of standard cards and then replaced in the deck. A second card is
then drawn and replaced. What is the probability that a queen is drawn each time?

On the first draw, the probability of getting one of the four queens in the deck is 4 out of 52 cards. Because
the queen is replaced into the deck, the probability of getting a queen on the second draw remains the
same. Using the counting principle we have:

P(draw 2 queens) = P(queen on first draw) • P(queen on second draw)

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #6.1 – Measures of Central Tendency
Recall - Mean :

The mean is the average of the numbers: a calculated "central" value of a set of numbers.

To calculate: Just add up all the numbers, then divide by how many numbers there are.

Example: what is the mean of 2, 7 and 9?

Add the numbers: 2 + 7 + 9 = 18

Divide by how many numbers (i.e. we added 3 numbers): 18 ÷ 3 = 6

So the Mean is 6

Recall - Median :

If there is an odd number of numbers in the set. You take the middle number (in a sorted list of the numbers).

To find the Median, place the numbers you are given in value order and find the middle number.

Example: find the Median of {13, 23, 11, 16, 15, 26}.

For this set we have an even number of terms, in order: {11, 13, 15, 16, 23, 26}

The middle numbers are 15 and 16, their average is 15.5

odd – if there is one middle number that is your median.
even - (If there are two middle numbers, you average them.)

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Mode - The mode is the value that appears most often in a set of data.
Outliers - In statistics, an outlier is an observation point that is distant from other
observations. An outlier may be due to variability in the measurement or it may indicate
experimental error; the latter are sometimes excluded from the data set.
Outliers can occur by chance in any distribution, and are considered "outside the norm".
However, they are often indicative either of measurement error or that the population has a heavy-
tailed distribution. In the former case one wishes to discard them.

Mean for Grouped Data - Calculation of the Mean for Grouped Data

When we are given grouped data we have to make some assumptions about the data provided.

Firstly, if there are any open class intervals, we have to close them. Secondly, to reduce the complexity
of the calculation we make the assumption that all the variable values in each group may be represented by
the centre of the group interval.

This assumes that the data is evenly distributed throughout.

For example the following data represents the absence (in days) of 50 employees over the last twelve
months:

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
where X refers to the mid-points of the groups and f refers to the frequency of each group (i.e. the numbers
associated with each group).

Example #1 :
An estimate, , of the mean of the population from which the data are drawn can be calculated
from the grouped data as:

In this formula, x refers to the midpoint of the class intervals, and f is the class frequency. Note
that the result of this will be different from the sample mean of the ungrouped data. The mean
for the grouped data in the above example, can be calculated as follows:

Class Intervals Frequency ( f ) Midpoint ( x) fx

5 and above, below 10 1 7.5 7.5

10 ≤ t < 15 4 12.5 50

15 ≤ t < 20 6 17.5 105

20 ≤ t < 25 4 22.5 90

25 ≤ t < 30 2 27.5 55

30 ≤ t < 35 3 32.5 97.5

TOTAL 20 405

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Thus, the mean of the grouped data is

Weighted Mean

Example #1: For a statistics course, the final exam grade is weighted four times as much
as each quiz score. For a final exam grade of 82 with quiz scores of 94, 89, 92, and 85,
compute the average grade.
Solution:

Example #2: The College of the Sequoias recently listed the names of people who had
worked at the college for 15, 20, 25, and 30 years. There were 8 people who had worked
for 15 years, 5 people for 20 years, 4 people for 25 years, and 1 person for 30 years. If we
wanted to find the mean length of service for these 18 people, we could add 15 + 15 +…+
15 + 20 +…+ 20 + 25 +…+ 25 + 30, then divide the total by 18. But we could also use
the weighted mean. If a value is repeated, we multiply it by the number of times it
appears in the list. We repeat this for all values in the list, add these products, then divide
by the total number of values. The number 15 appears 8 times in the above list. 15 is a
value, and 8 is its weight. 20 is a value, and 5 is its weight. Here's the formula.

Let's work it out for the above problem.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #6.2 – Measures of Spread (pg. 275 #1-10)
Percentile Rank - A percentile rank is the percentage of scores that fall at or
below a given score. Definition 2: A percentile is a measure that tells us what
percent of the total frequency scored below that measure. A percentile rank is the
percentage of scores that fall below a given score.

About Percentile Ranks:

• percentile rank is a number between 0 and 100 indicating the percent of cases falling at or
below that score.
• percentile ranks are usually written to the nearest whole percent: 74.5% = 75% =
75th percentile
• scores are divided into 100 equally sized groups
• scores are arranged in rank order from lowest to highest
• there is no 0 percentile rank - the lowest score is at the first percentile
• there is no 100th percentile - the highest score is at the 99th percentile.
• you cannot perform the same mathematical operations on percentiles that you can on raw
scores. You cannot, for example, compute the mean of percentile scores, as the results may be
misleading.

Percentile ranks are an easy way to convey an individual's standing at graduation

relative to other graduates.

Unfortunately, there is no universally accepted definition of "percentile".

Consider the following two slightly different definitions:
Formula #1:
To find the percentile rank of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x is
included:

Where B = number of scores below x

E = number of scores equal to x
n = number of scores

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Example #1: If Jason graduated 25thout of a class of 150 students, then 125
students were ranked below Jason. Jason's percentile rank would be:

Jason's standing in the class at the 84thpercentile is as higher or higher than 84% of
the graduates. Good job, Jason!
Formula #2:
To find the percentile rank of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x is not
included:

Example #2: If Jason graduated 25th out of a class of 150 students, then 125
students were ranked below Jason. Jason's percentile rank would be:

Jason's standing in the class at the 83rdpercentile is higher than 83% of the
graduates. Good job, Jason!

Percentile - Percentiles divide the set of data into 100 equal parts. Percentiles
measure position from the bottom.

Percentiles are most often used for determining the relative standing of an
individual in a population or the rank position of the individual. Some of the most
popular uses for percentiles are connected with test scores and graduation
standings.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Percentile Examples

1. The math test scores were: 50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98,
98, 99. Find the percentile rank for a score of 84 on this test.

Be sure the scores are ordered from smallest to largest. Locate the 84.

Solution Using Formula:

B = number of scores below x

E = number of scores equal to x
n = number of scores
Solution Using Visualization:

Since there are 2 values equal to 84, assign one to the group "above 84" and the other to the group
"below 84".

50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, | 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98, 98, 99

The score of 84 is at the 45th percentile for this test.

Here we see that PERCENTILE RANK can be used to solve for PERCENTILE, and vice versa.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
2. The math test scores were: 50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98,
98, 99. Find the percentile rank for a score of 86 on this test.

Be sure the scores are ordered from smallest to largest. Locate the 86.

Solution Using Formula:

Solution Using Visualization:

Since there is only one value equal to 86, it will be counted as "half" of a data value for the group
"above 86" as well as the group "below 86".

50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 8|6, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98, 98, 99

The score of 86 is at the 58th percentile for this test.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Percentiles and percentile ranks are highly similar statistics. Percentiles are
calculated as a means of dividing a distribution of values into 2 or more groups.
They are used to determine where to draw the line between observed values
within the distribution.
For example: if a teacher wishes to determine the exam score that
divides his class in half, with 50% scoring above and 50% scoring
below, he determines the point that marks the 50th percentile.
A percentile rank is used to determine where a particular score or value fits
within a broader distribution.
For example: A student receives a score of 75 out of 100 on an exam and
wishes to determine how her score compares to the rest of the class.
She calculates a percentile rank for a score of 75 based on the reported scores
of the entire class. Her percentile rank in this example would be 80, meaning
that 80 percent of scores on the exam were at or below 75.
Quartiles -
Quartiles divide that distribution into quarters. The first quartile (𝑄1 ) is the
25th percentile. The second quartile (𝑄2 ) is the 50th percentile or the median. The
75th percentile is the third quartile (𝑄3 ).
Quartiles can be thought of as percentile measure. Remember that quartiles break
the data set into 4 equal parts. If 100% is broken into four equal parts, we have
subdivisions at 25%, 50%, and 75% creating the:
First quartile (lower quartile) to be at the 25th percentile.
Median (or second quartile) to be at the 50th percentile.
Third quartile (upper quartile) to be a the 75th percentile.

Cumulative For the table at the left, find the intervals in which
Test Scores Frequency
Frequency the first, second and third quartiles lie.
76-80 3 3
If there are a total of 20 scores, the first quartile will
81-85 7 10 be located (25% · 20 = 5) five values up from the
86-90 6 16 bottom. This puts the first quartile in the interval
81-85.
91-95 4 20

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
In a similar fashion, the second quartile will be located (50% · 20 = 10) ten values up from the
bottom in the interval 81-85.

The third quartile will be located (75% · 20 = 15) fifteen values up from the bottom in the interval
86-90.
Inter-quartile Range ( I.Q.R. ) - is used to show the different quartiles.

With an Even Sample Size:

For the sample (n=10) the median diastolic blood pressure is 71 (50% of the
values are above 71, and 50% are below).

The quartiles can be determined in the same way we determined the median,
except we consider each half of the data set separately.

There are 5 values below the median (lower half), the middle value is 64 which
is the first quartile. There are 5 values above the median (upper half), the
middle value is 77 which is the third quartile.

The inter-quartile range is 77 – 64 = 13; the inter-quartile range is the range of

the middle 50% of the data.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
With an Odd Sample Size:
When the sample size is odd, the median and quartiles are determined in the same way.

Suppose in the previous example, the lowest value (62) were excluded, and the sample
size was n=9. The median and quartiles are indicated below.

When the sample size is 9, the median is the middle number 72.

The quartiles are determined in the same way looking at the lower and upper halves,
respectively.

There are 4 values in the lower half, the first quartile is the mean of the 2 middle values in
the lower half ((64+64)/2=64).

The same approach is used in the upper half to determine the third quartile
((77+81)/2=79).

Range - In arithmetic, the range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and
smallest values.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
 Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
What makes an outlier - There are several methods for determining outliers in a sample. A
very popular method is based on the following:

One definition of outlier is any data point more than 1.5 inter-quartile ranges (IQRs) below the
first quartile or above the third quartile. Note: The IQR definition given here is widely used but
is not the last word in determining whether a given number is an outlier.
1.
2. IQR = 10.5 – 3.5 = 7, so 1.5. IQR = 10.5.

Outliers are values below Q1-1.5(Q3-Q1) or above Q3+1.5(Q3-Q1) or equivalently, values below
Q1-1.5 IQR or above Q3+1.5 IQR.

These are referred to as Tukey fences.

For the diastolic blood pressures, the lower limit is 64 - 1.5(77-64) = 44.5 and the upper limit is
77 + 1.5(77-64) = 96.5.

The diastolic blood pressures range from 62 to 81. Therefore there are no outliers. The best
summary of a typical diastolic blood pressure is the mean (in this case 71.3) and the best
summary of variability is given by the standard deviation (s=7.2).

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter #6.3 - Standard Deviation and z-Scores
Key Concepts
The variance and standard deviation are measures of spread.
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
8.1 - Line Of Best Fit (LOBF)
In this section we will be covering the concept of Linear Regression, which is the
formulation and manipulation of a LOBF.
Linear Correlations –
-
Correlation Coefficient – ( r )
o Exists only between -1 and 1, and cannot exceed those parameters.

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Correlation Coefficient
N = number of terms.
Σ x = sum of all the x’s
Σ y = sum of all the y’s
Σ xy= sum of all they products of x and y
Σ xx= sum of all they products of x and x
Σ yy= sum of all they products of y and y

Example #1 – The table shows distance from home for a cyclist over time.
Step #1

time distance Time x Distance Time x Time Distance x Distance

x y x*y x *x y*y
10 9.8
20 8.1
30 5.8
40 4.2
50 2.3
150 30.2

Time Vs Distance
15
y = -0.189x + 11.71
Distance

10 R² = 0.9975
distance
5
Linear
0
(distance)
0 20 40 60
Time

Step #2

time distance Time x Distance Time x Time Distance x Distance

x y x*y x *x y*y
10 9.8 98 100 96.04
20 8.1 162 400 65.61
30 5.8 174 900 33.64
40 4.2 168 1600 17.64
50 2.3 115 2500 5.29
150 30.2 717 5500 218.22

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Step #3
𝑛Σ𝑥𝑦−Σ𝑥Σ𝑦
r=
√𝑛Σ𝑥 2 −(Σ𝑥)2 √𝑛Σ𝑦 2 −(Σy)2

5∗717−150∗30.2
=
√5∗5500−(150)2 √5∗218.22−(30.2)2

3585−4530
=
√27500−22500√1091.1−912.04

−945
=
√5000√179.06

−945
=
√895300
−945
=946.2029

= −0.9987

Step #4
Use the data created in the chart to solve for the equation for the Line of best fit
First solve for Slope using the equation below, then use that value to solve for the y-intercept.

𝑛Σ𝑥𝑦−Σ𝑥Σ𝑦
m=𝑛Σ𝑥2 −(Σ𝑥)2

5∗717−150∗30.2
m= 5∗5500−(150)2

−945
m= 5000

m=−0.189

Σ𝑦−𝑚∗Σ𝑥
b= 𝑛
30.2−(−0.189)∗150
b= 5
30.2−(−0.189)∗150
b= 5
= 11.71

y = mx + b  y = -0.189 x + 11.71

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
8.2 – Cause and Effect
Cause and effect relationship –
- The correlation between two variables in which a change in one
(independent) directly causes a change in the other (dependent).

Common Cause relationship –

- The correlation between two variables in which both variables change as a
result of a third common variable.
Presumed relationship –
- A relationship that makes sense but does not seem to have a causation
factor.
Reverse cause and effect relationship –
- A relationship in which the independent
and dependent variable are reversed.

Accidental Relationship –
- A relationship that is based purely on
coincidence.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
8.3 – Dynamic Analysis of Two-Variable Data
Coefficient of determination –
- The coefficient of determination
(R2) is a measure of the degree of
linear correlation between two
variables and the amount of trust
in linear regression with regards to
predicted outcomes through
extrapolation and interpolation.
- With a value of 0 to 1, the
coefficient of determination is
calculated as the square of the
correlation coefficient (R) between
the sample and predicted data.

Residual – the difference between a data point’s actual dependent value and the
dependent value predicted by the line of best fit.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Residual Plot –
- shows the value of each ‘residual’ graphically as the vertical distance from a
horizontal axis

Outlier –
- a data point that does not fit an otherwise clear trend
- in a scatter plot, the outlier is relatively far from the line of best fit
- in a residual plot, the outlier is either relatively far above or below the
horizontal line.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
3.1 Permutations with non-ordered Elements
Permutations  Recall

Permutations with Like Objects  Recall

The number of
permutations of
‘n’ elements is
divided by the
factorial
associated with
the number
repetitions for
each unique item.

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
3.2 Combinations

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
3.3 Problems Solving with Combinations
Sauce Cheese Mushrooms Onions Peppers Rapini Extra Veal
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Each topping has two possibilities. 1 = Exists on the sandwich; 0 =
Does not exist
There are 7 possible toppings, 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 =128 possible
sandwich combinations
The total number of subsets of a set of n elements …

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
3.4 Combinations and Pascal’s Triangle
Binomial Expansion Using Pascal’s Triangle

These expressions exhibit many patterns:

- Each expansion has one more term than the power on the binomial.
- The sum of the exponents in each term in the expansion is the same as the power on the binomial.
- The powers on a in the expansion decrease by 1 with each successive term, while the powers on b
increase by 1.
- The coefficients form a symmetrical pattern.
- Each coefficient entry below the second row is the sum of the closest pair of numbers in the line
directly above it.

This triangular array is called Pascal's triangle, named after the French mathematician Blaise
Pascal.

Pascal's triangle can be extended to find the coefficients for raising a binomial to any whole number
exponent. This same array could be expressed using the factorial symbol, as shown in the following.

In general…

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

The symbol , called the binomial coefficient, is defined as follows:

Therefore,

This could be further condensed using sigma notation.

This formula is known as the binomial theorem.

Example 1

Use the binomial theorem to express ( x + y) 7 in expanded form.

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Notice the following pattern:

In general, the kth term of any binomial expansion can be expressed as follows:

Example 2

Find the tenth term of the expansion ( x + y) 13

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli

Since n = 13 and k = 10,

The outer diagonals will always be

zeros, as they are clones of the single
parent above it.
The second value in each line is the
‘Counting Number’ which indicates
the Row Number for the row.
The ‘Triangular Numbers’ note the
number of spheres in a tetrahedral
prism.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
3.5 Probabilities using Pascal’s Triangle

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Chapter 4 - Probability Distributions for Discrete Variables
4.1 Probability Distribution

Probability Distribution –
- The probabilities for all possible outcomes of an experiment or sample
space.
- Often shown as a graph of probability versus the value of a random
variable.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Random Variable –
- A quantity that can have a range of values.
- Designated by a capital letter X, with individual values designated by a
lower-case x.
Discrete random variable –
- A variable that can have only certain values within a given range, such
as the sum of two dice.
Continuous random Variable –
- A variable that can have an infinite number of possible values in a given
range, often measurements, such as volume or time.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Probability histogram –
- A graph of a probability distribution in which equal intervals are marked
on the horizontal axis and the probabilities associated with these
intervals are indicated by the areas of the bars.

Weighted mean –
- the mean of a set of numbers that are given weightings based on their
frequency
- multiply each number by its weight (or frequency) and divide by the
sum of the weights.

Example: For a statistics course, the final exam grade is weighted four times as
much as each quiz score. For a final exam grade of 82 with quiz scores of 94, 89,
92, and 85, compute the average grade.
Solution:

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
Expectation (Expected value) –
- written E(x)
- E(x) of a probability distribution is the predicted average
of all possible outcomes.

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
4.2 Uniform Distribution
Uniform Distribution –
- Occurs when, in a single trial, all outcomes are equally
likely.

 All that evil needs to win … is for enough good men to do nothing. 
Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
4.3 Binomial Distribution
Binomial Probability Distribution –
- A distribution with independent trials whose outcomes are
either success or failure
- The random variable is the number of successes in a given
number of trials.
Key Concepts -
- A binomial distribution has a specific number of identical
independent trials in which the result in success or failure.
- You can represent a binomial distribution using a table, a
histogram, and a formula.
- The probability of x successes in n independent trials is
shown in the equation below

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Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board St. Aloysius Gonzaga
Mathematics Department Data Management Mr. Michael Buzzelli
4.4 Hypergeometric Distribution

4.5 Comparing and Selecting Discrete Probability Distributions

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