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5 - System Reliability and Ancillary Services

This document discusses system reliability and ancillary services in electric power systems. It defines reliability as having two elements - adequacy, meaning generation can balance loads and losses, and security, meaning the ability to withstand contingencies. It describes different types of ancillary services needed for reliability including balancing services to match generation and load, and reactive support and blackstart capabilities. It explains how system operators use preventive and corrective actions to maintain reliability through adequate generation and secure operations after contingencies occur.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
84 views63 pages

5 - System Reliability and Ancillary Services

This document discusses system reliability and ancillary services in electric power systems. It defines reliability as having two elements - adequacy, meaning generation can balance loads and losses, and security, meaning the ability to withstand contingencies. It describes different types of ancillary services needed for reliability including balancing services to match generation and load, and reactive support and blackstart capabilities. It explains how system operators use preventive and corrective actions to maintain reliability through adequate generation and secure operations after contingencies occur.

Uploaded by

Sari M.I
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 63

Joint MSc in Electrical Engineering (JMEE)

Power System Operation and Management


Palestine Polytechnic University
Graduate Studies Dr. Fouad Zaro
Electric Power Systems Engineering

System Reliability and


Ancillary Services
Key Definitions

• Reliability of an electric power system can be viewed as


two interrelated elements: adequacy + security.

• Adequacy ➔ Generation can be kept in balance with loads,


losses, and intertie outflows (system balance)

• Security ➔ Electric power system is able to withstand


contingencies (sudden changes) on a daily and hourly basis,
e.g., loss of a generating unit or transmission line.

• Ancillary Services (A/S) ➔ Services needed to ensure


system reliability.

2
Ancillary Services (A/S)

Types of A/S:
• Balancing services (gen = load/losses/outflow)
– Regulation, load-following, spinning/non-spinning reserves
• Reactive Support
– Regulate voltage in normal times, provide reactive
support in emergency conditions
• Intertrip Schemes (autodisconnect in event of a fault)
• Blackstart capability (system restoration).

3
Introduction

• Grid outages impose high costs on market participants.

• Participants value system reliability (preventive and


corrective actions to maintain normal grid operations).

• But the cost of reliability should not exceed its benefit.

4
System Reliability = Adequacy + Security

• System must be able to operate continuously under


normal operating conditions (adequacy)
• System must stabilize after contingencies (security)
– Fault on a transmission line or other component
– Sudden failure of a generating unit
– Rapid change in load
• To maintain system reliability, operator must use
both:
– Preventive actions (ex ante)
– Corrective actions (ex post)

5
Preventive Actions

• Put the system in a state such that it will remain stable


whether or not a contingency occurs.

• Example: Operate the system at less than full available


generation and/or line capacity (so operations can be
maintained even if a generator or line outage occurs)

– Implies some feasible energy trades are not allowed


– Opportunity cost of lost energy trades (e.g., decrease in
GenCo net earnings) can outweigh gain in system reliability

6
Corrective Action

• Taken only if a disturbance does occur.


• Limits the consequences of this disturbance.
• Can require system operator to purchase various types of A/S
from market participants.
• Some A/S entail the delivery of energy whereas other A/S
entail the curtailment of energy usage.
• The important factor for the system operator is ensuring in
advance the capacity to deliver/curtail energy as needed to
limit consequences of a disturbance.
• Value of A/S is its availability to deliver/curtail energy as
reliability needs arise, not simply actual energy delivery or
curtailment.
7
Needs for Ancillary Services

8
Balancing Generation and Load

• Assume that all generators, loads and tie-lines are


connected to the same bus
• Only system variables are total generation, total load
and net interchange with other systems

9
Balancing Generation and Load

• System balance means power injections (generation) =


power withdrawals (load+losses+net interchange outflow)
– If the system is balanced, frequency remains constant
• In practice, system imbalance arises due to:
– Constant fluctuations in the load
– Inaccurate control of the generation
– Sudden outages of generators or transmission lines
– Sudden outages of tie-lines between systems
• In an isolated system (no tie-lines):
– Excess generation causes an increase in frequency
– Excess load causes a drop in frequency

10
Balancing Generation and Load

• Generators can only operate within a narrow range of


frequencies
– Protection devices disconnect generators from rest of the
system when the frequency is too low or too high, causing
further imbalance between load and generation
• A large sudden regional imbalance between load and
generation in a system connected to other systems can
cause the disconnection of their tie-lines.
• System operator must maintain frequency within limits

11
Balancing Generation and Load

• Rate of change in frequency inversely proportional to


total inertia of generators and rotating loads.
• Frequency changes much less in large interconnected
systems than in small isolated systems
• Local imbalance in an interconnected system causes a
change in tie-line flows

12
Balancing Generation and Load

• Inadvertent flows can overload the tie-lines


• Protection system may disconnect these lines
• Could lead to further imbalance between load and
generation
• Each system must remain in balance

13
Balancing Generation and Load

• Minor frequency deviations and inadvertent


flows are not an immediate threat
• However, they weaken the system
• Must be corrected quickly so the system can
withstand further problems

14
Balancing Services (One Form of A/S)

• Different phenomena contribute to


imbalances
• Each phenomenon has a different time
signature
• Different services are required to handle these
phenomena
• Exact definition of “balancing services” differs
from market to market

15
Classification of Balancing Services

• Regulation and load following services:


– Almost continuous action
– Relatively small
– Need for regulation (time, amount) is quite predictable
– Availability of regulation and load-following services is
arranged in advance as a preventive reliability action
• Reserve services:
– Need for reserves (time, amount) difficult to predict
– Reserves are called upon for corrective security actions
– But advance contracting for reserve provision is a form of
preventive reliability action

16
Regulation Service in More Detail:

• Designed to handle:
– Rapid fluctuations in load
– Small, unintended variations in generation
• Designed to maintain:
– Frequency close to its nominal value (60 Hz US, 50 Hz most
other regions of the world)
– Interchanges at desired power flows
• Traditionally provided by generating units that:
– Can adjust output quickly
– Are connected to the grid
– Are equipped with a governor with Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) = ability to respond in real time to commands
from the central system operator to control power output
up/down 17
Load Following Service in More Detail:

• Designed to handle intra-period load fluctuations


• Designed to maintain:
– Frequency close to its nominal value
– Interchanges at desired power flow levels

• Traditionally provided by generating units that can


respond at a sufficiently fast rate

18
Spinning/Non-Spinning Reserve Services

• Designed to handle large and unpredictable deficits


caused by outages of generators and tie-lines
• Two main types:
I. Spinning reserve
• Start immediately (already synchronized to the grid)
• Full amount available quickly (fast ramping)
II. Supplemental reserve
• Can start more slowly (e.g., in 10 minutes, or in 30 minutes)
• Designed to replace spinning reserve

• Exact definitions and features differ across regions


19
Types of Operating Reserves
• Generation System: Operating
reserve in terms of demand;
• In principle operating reserves may
be classified in two groups
1) Hot operating reserves, those
plants, which is kept ready to put in
service immediately,
2) Cold operating reserves, those
plants, which is kept ready, but can
be put in service within 10-60
minutes, following the order.
• Keeping a plant ready as hot or cold
operating reserve is something that
incurs a cost to the party who
benefits from this service.

20
Network Issues: Contingency Analysis

• System operator continuously performs contingency


analysis
• Goal: No credible-threat contingency should be able to
destabilize the system
• Modes of destabilization:
– Thermal overload
– Transient instability
– Voltage instability
• If a credible-threat contingency could destabilize the
system, the operator should take preventive action

21
Types of Preventive Actions

• Low-cost preventive actions:


• Examples
– Adjust taps of transformers
– Adjust reference voltage of generators
– Adjust phase shifters
– Effective but limited
• High-cost preventive actions:
– Restrict active power flow on some transmission network
branches
– Requires limiting the power output of some generators
– Affects the ability of these generators to trade on the
market and make money
22
Example: Thermal Capacity

• Each line between A and B is rated at 200 MW


• Generator at A can sell only 200 MW to load at B
• Remaining 200 MW of transmission capacity must be kept
in reserve in case of outage of one of the lines

23
Example: Emergency Thermal Capacity

• Each line between A and B is rated at 200 MW.


• Each line has a 10% emergency rating for 20 minutes,
meaning either line can withstand a 10% overload for 20
minutes without equipment damage or line fault problems.
• If generator at B can increase its output by 20 MW in 20
minutes if necessary, then generator at A can sell 220 MW
to load at B because the operator knows the 220MW load
can still be met even if there is a line outage.
24
Voltage Control and Reactive Support Services

• Use reactive power resources to maximize active power that


can be transferred through the transmission network
• Some of these reactive power resources are under the control
of the system operator:
– Mechanically-switched capacitors and reactors
– Static VAr compensators
– Transformer taps
• But the best reactive power resources are generators.
• Need to define voltage control services to specify the
conditions under which the system operator can obtain and
use reactive power resources.
25
Voltage Control & Reactive Support Services

• Must consider both normal and abnormal conditions


• Normal voltage conditions:
 0.95 p.u. ≤ V ≤ 1.05 p.u.
• Abnormal voltage conditions:
– Provide enough reactive power to prevent a voltage
collapse following an outage
• Requirements for abnormal conditions are much more
severe than for normal conditions
• Reactive support is more important than voltage control

26
Example: Voltage Control under Normal Conditions

• Load at B has a power factor of 1.0 (no reactive support)


• Voltage at A maintained at nominal value 1.0 p.u.
• How might the operator control the voltage at B?

27
Example: Voltage Control under Normal Conditions

28
Example: Voltage Control under Normal Conditions

Controlling the voltage at B using the generator at A?

• Local voltage control is much more effective


• Severe market power issues in reactive support

29
Example: Reactive support After Line Outage

Reactive Power injection at bus B MVar

30
Example: Pre- and post-contingency balance

Pre-contingency

Post-contingency

31
Other Forms of Ancillary Services

• Stability services
– Intertrip schemes
• Disconnection of generators following faults
– Power system stabilizers
• Minute adjustments to generator outputs to dampen
oscillations that might develop in the network
• Blackstart restoration capability service
– Restarting of system operations after a total system collapse
– Requires generators able to restart manually or thru stored
energy
– System operator must ensure enough availability of restoration
resources to guarantee a prompt restoration of service at any
time
32
Line Outages leading to Generation Outages
• Main Sources of Line Outages:
– Physical connection of an external object such as, tree,
helicopter, human being, etc.,
– Lightning stroke,
– Incorrect switching,
– Severe weather conditions, such as wind, storm, ice and snow
loading, etc.

33
Line Outages leading to Generation Outages

• Ancillary service
• Frequency control: Supply-demand balancing

34
Supply-Demand Balance

• The electricity cannot be


stored economically. This
means that:
• electricity is consumed
immediately while it is being
generated.
• consumed electricity must
always be equal to generated
electricity.
• “Supply-Demand Balance”

35
Operating Reserves

• Main duty of the system operator is to operate the


system always in a reliable state by maintaining
supply-demand balance.

• Basic tool for maintaining supply-demand balance:


– The system operator must always have a sufficient
amount of operating reserve against sudden unexpected
contingencies.

36
Supply-Demand Balance

37
Frequency Control

 System frequency is
determined merely by supply-
demand balance.

 A deviation in system frequency


is an indication of supply-
demand unbalance

38
AGC: Automatic Generation Control

Speed-droop characteristic, Two machine example

39
Voltage Reduction (Brown-out)
• It is possible to shed a certain part
of load, such as 10 % by voltage
reduction.
• Reducing terminal voltage of the
load by 10 % results in 19 %
reduction in demand.

• This type of load shedding


is called “Brown-out”

40
Economic dispatch
Varying power output at constant frequency

41
Voltage stability: Standby generator start-up

42
Voltage stability: Switching on/off shunt capacitors

Distribution System

43
Trading enforcement
All power transactions are metered in real-time

44
Obtaining Ancillary Services

45
Obtaining Ancillary Services

• How much ancillary services should be bought?

• How should these services be obtained?

• Who should pay for these services?

46
How much ancillary services should be bought?

• System Operator purchases the services


– Works on behalf of the users of the system
• Services are used mostly for contingencies
– Availability is more important than actual usage
• Not enough services
– Can’t ensure the security of the system
– Can’t maintain the quality of the supply
• Too much services
– Life of the operator is easy
– Cost passed on to system users

47
How much ancillary services should be bought?

• System Operator must perform a cost/benefit


analysis
– Balance value of services against their cost
• Value of services: improvement in security and
service quality
• Complicated probabilistic optimization problem
• Should give a financial incentive to the operator to
acquire the right amount of services at minimum
cost

48
How should services be obtained?

• Two approaches:
– Compulsory provision
– Market for ancillary services
• Both have advantages and disadvantages
• Choice influenced by:
– Type of service
– Nature of the power system
– History of the power system

49
Compulsory provision

• To be allowed to connect to the system, generators


may be obliged to meet some conditions
• Examples:
• Generator must be equipped with governor with 4%
droop
– All generators contribute to frequency control
• Generator must be able to operate from 0.85 lead to
0.9 lag
– All generators contribute to voltage control and reactive
support

50
Advantages of compulsory provision

• Minimum deviation from traditional practice


• Simplicity
• Usually ensures system security and quality of supply

51
Disadvantages of compulsory provision

• Not necessarily good economic policy


– May provide more resources than needed and cause
unnecessary investments
• Not all generating units need to help control frequency
• Not all generating units need to be equipped with a
stabilizer
• Discourages technological innovation
– Definition based on what generators usually provide
• Generators have to provide a costly for free
– Example: providing reactive power increases losses and
reduces active power generation capacity
52
Disadvantages of compulsory provision

• Equity
– How to deal with generators that cannot provide some services?
– Example: nuclear units can’t participate in frequency response
• Economic efficiency
– Not a good idea to force highly efficient units to operate part
loaded to provide reserve
– More efficient to determine centrally how much reserve is
needed and commit additional units to meet this reserve
requirement
• Compulsory provision is thus not applicable to all services
• How to deal with exceptions that distort competition?

53
Market for ancillary services

• Different markets for different services


• Long term contracts
– For services where quantity needed does not change and
availability depends on equipment characteristics
– Example: blackstart capability, intertrip schemes, power system
stabilizer, frequency regulation
• Spot market
– Needs change over the course of a day
– Price changes because of interactions with energy market
– Example: reserve
• System operator may reduce its risk by using a combination
of spot market and long term contracts
54
Advantages of market for ancillary services

• More economically efficient than compulsory


provision
• System operator buys only the amount of service
needed
• Only participants that find it profitable provide
services
• Helps determine the true cost of services
• Opens up opportunities for innovative solutions

55
Disadvantages of market for ancillary services

• More complex
• Probably not applicable to all types of services
• Potential for abuse of market power
– Example: reactive support in remote parts of the network
– Market for reactive power would need to be carefully
regulated

56
Demand-side provision of ancillary services

• Creating a market for ancillary services opens up an


opportunity for the demand-side to provide ancillary
services
• Unfortunately, definition of ancillary services often
still based on traditional practice
• In a truly competitive environment, the system
operator should not favor any participant, either
from the supply or demand-side

57
Advantages of demand-side provision

• Larger number of participants increases competition and


lowers cost
• Better utilization of resources
– Example:
• Providing reserve with interruptible loads rather than partly
loaded thermal generating units
• Particularly important if proportion of generation from
renewable sources increases
• Demand-side may be a more reliable provider
– Large number of small demand-side providers

58
Opportunities for demand-side provision

• Different types of reserve


– Interruptible loads

• Frequency regulation
– Variable speed pumping loads

59
Who should pay for ancillary services?

60
Who should pay for ancillary services?

• Not all users value security and quality of supply


equally
– Examples:
• Producers vs. consumers
• Semi-conductor manufacturing vs. irrigation load
• Ideally, users who value security more should get more
security and pay for it
• With the current technology, this is not possible
– System operator provides an average level of security to all
users
– The cost of ancillary services is shared by all users on the
basis of their consumption
61
Who should pay for ancillary services?

• Sharing the cost of ancillary services on the basis of


energy is not economically efficient
• Some participants increase the need for services
more than others
• These participants should pay a larger share of the
cost to encourage them to change their behavior
• Example: allocating the cost of reserve

62
Who should pay for reserve?

• Reserve prevents collapse of the system when there is


a large imbalance between load and generation
• Large imbalances usually occur because of failure of
generating units
• Owners of large generating units that fail frequently
should pay a larger proportion of the cost of reserve
• Encourage them to improve the reliability of their units
• In the long term:
– Reduce need for reserve
– Reduce overall cost of reserve
63

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