Q.1 What is meant by power system stability?

Ans: Power system stability involves the study of the dynamics of the power system under
disturbances. Power system stability implies that its ability to return to normal or stable
operation after having been subjected to some form of disturbances.

Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating
condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical
disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire system
remains intact.

Q.2 Discuss various types of stability.

Ans: There are three type of stability such as Steady state, transient and dynamic stability.
Steady-state Stability:
Steady-state stability relates to the response of synchronous machine to a gradually
increasing load. It is basically concerned with the determination of the upper limit of machine
loading without losing synchronism, provided the loading is increased gradually.
Dynamic Stability:
Dynamic stability involves the response to small disturbances that occur on the system,
producing oscillations. The system is said to be dynamically stable if theses oscillations do not
acquire more than certain amplitude and die out quickly. If these oscillations continuously
grow in amplitude, the system is dynamically unstable. The source of this type of instability is
usually an interconnection between control systems.
Transient Stability:
Transient stability involves the response to large disturbances, which may cause rather large
changes in rotor speeds, power angles and power transfers. Transient stability is a fast
phenomenon usually evident within a few second.

Q.3 What are the assumption made for all stability analysis?

Ans: Power system stability mainly concerned with rotor stability analysis. For these various
assumptions needed such as:
• For stability analysis balanced three phase system and balanced disturbances are
considered.
• Deviations of machine frequencies from synchronous frequency are small.
• During short circuit in generator, de offset and high frequency current are present.
But for analysis of stability, these are neglected.
• Network and impedance loads are at steady state. Hence voltages, currents and
powers can be computed from power flow equation.
Q.4 Define: Stability limit, Steady state stability limit, transient stability limit,
stability margin.

Ans:
The stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred in a network between
source and load without loss of synchronism.
The steady state stability limit of a particular circuit of a power system defined as the
maximum power that can be transmitted to the receiving end without loss of synchronism,
when the load is increased gradually.
The transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred without the
system becoming unstable when a sudden or large disturbance occurs.
The stability margin of a power system is a measure of how far the system can withstand
disturbances before losing its synchronism and stability.

Q.5 What are the factor affecting transient stability limit?

Ans: Various methods which improve power system transient stability are
1. Improved steady-state stability
a) Higher system voltage levels
b) Additional transmission line
c) Smaller transmission line series reactance
d) Smaller transfer leakage reactance
e) Series capacitive transmission line compensation
f) Static var compensators and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTs)
2. High speed fault clearing
3. High speed reclosure of circuit breaker
4. Single pole switching
5. Large machine inertia, lower transient reactance
6. Fast responding, high gain exciter
7. Fast valving
8. Breaking resistor

Q.6 Define swing equation. Derive swing equation for multimachine system.

Ans:
Swing Equation describes the rotor dynamics for a synchronous machine. Damping must be
considered in dynamic stability study.
𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
∙ = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 ) pu……… (1)
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
Equation (1) is called Swing Equation.
Multi Machine System: In a multi machine system a common base must be selected. Let
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 = machine rating (base)
𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = system base
Equation (1) can be written as:
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑2 𝛿 𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
( ) 𝑑𝑡 2 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 )
𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝜋𝑓 𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑2 𝛿
So ( ) 𝑑𝑡 2 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 ) pu on system base
𝜋𝑓
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
where 𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∙ 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
= machine inertia constant in system base

Q.7 Derive the formula for obtaining equivalent inertia constant mechanical
power, electrical power input for (i) coherent machine,(ii) non-coherent
machine.

Ans:
(i) For coherent machine, let consider the swing equations of two machines on a common
system base,
𝐻1 𝑑2 𝛿1
∙ = (𝑃𝑖1 − 𝑃𝑒1 ) …………(2)
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐻2 𝑑2 𝛿2
∙ = (𝑃𝑖2 − 𝑃𝑒2 ) ..……….(3)
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
Since the machines rotor swing together (coherently),
𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = 𝛿 .…..……(4)
Adding equations (2) and (3) and substituting equation (4), we get
𝐻𝑒𝑞 𝑑2 𝛿2
∙ = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 ) …………(5)
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
Where 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖1 + 𝑃𝑖2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒1 + 𝑃𝑒2
𝐻𝑒𝑞 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
Equivalent inertia 𝐻𝑒𝑞 can be expressed as,
𝐺1,𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐺2,𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐻𝑒𝑞 = ( ) ∙ 𝐻1,𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 + ( ) ∙ 𝐻2,𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

(ii) For non-coherent machine, the machines are not swinging together,
𝛿 = 𝛿2 − 𝛿1 .…..……(6)
Where, 𝛿2 is the load angle of generator 2, 𝛿1 is the load angle of generator 1, 𝛿 is the
resultant load angle. From equation (6) we get,
𝑑2 𝛿 𝑑 2 𝛿2 𝑑 2 𝛿1
= −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
By applying the swing equation,
𝑑2 𝛿 𝑃𝑖2 − 𝑃𝑒2 𝑃𝑖1 − 𝑃𝑒1
= −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑀2 𝑀1
 𝑀 𝑀
Multiplying both sides by 𝑀 1+𝑀2 we get,
1 2
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑑 2 𝛿 𝑀1 𝑃𝑖2 − 𝑀2 𝑃𝑖1 𝑀1 𝑃𝑒2 − 𝑀2 𝑃𝑒1
= −
𝑀1 + 𝑀2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 𝑀1 + 𝑀2
or, 𝑃𝑎𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑞 − 𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑞

where, 𝑃𝑎𝑒𝑞 = equivalent accelerating power

𝑃𝑖𝑒𝑞 = equivalent mechanical power
𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑞 = equivalent electrical power
𝑑2 𝛿 𝑀 𝑀 𝑑2 𝛿
So, 𝑃𝑎𝑒𝑞 = 𝑀𝑒𝑞 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑀 1+𝑀2
1 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝐻 𝐻
Where 𝑀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑀 , similarly if machines do not swing together, 𝐻𝑒𝑞 = 𝐻 1+𝐻2
1 +𝑀2 1 2

Q.8 Derive power angle equation.

Ans: The complex power output of generator is,

𝑆𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼 ∗ …………(7)
𝑉𝑆 ∗ −𝑉𝑅 ∗
Where 𝐼 ∗ = −𝑗𝑥
From (7) and (8) we get,
|𝑉𝑆 ||𝑉𝑅 | |𝑉𝑆 ||𝑉𝑅 | cos 𝛿−|𝑉𝑅 |2
𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = sin 𝛿 + 𝑗 [ ]
𝑥 𝑥
Therefore, for lossless transmission line,
|𝑉𝑆 ||𝑉𝑅 |
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝑅 = sin 𝛿 …………(8)
𝑥
Thus, the real power output depends on the power angle 𝛿. The max steady-state power
transfer occurs when 𝛿 = 90°;
|𝐸𝑔 ||𝑉𝑡 |
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑑
the equation for steady-state power delivered by a lossless synchronous machine is given by
|𝐸𝑔 ||𝑉𝑡 |
∴ 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑑 = sin 𝛿
𝑥𝑑
= 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿
Where |𝐸𝑔 | is the rms internal voltage, |𝑉𝑡 | is the rms terminal voltage, 𝑥𝑑 is the direct axis
reactance and 𝛿 is the electrical power angle.

Q.9 What are the assumption made in drawing power angle curve? How can 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
be calculated?

Ans: The real power output depends on the power angle 𝛿.

|𝐸||𝑉|
∴ 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = sin 𝛿 …………(9)
𝑋
Figure-2 shows the power angle curve, from this curve various
assumptions can be made such as,
 • As 𝛿 is increased beyond 90°, 𝑃𝑒 decreases.
• At 𝛿 = 180°, 𝑃𝑒 becomes zero.
• Beyond 𝛿 = 180°, 𝑃𝑒 becomes negative which implies that the power flow direction
is reversed and the power is supplied from the infinite bus to the generator.
• The positive value of 𝛿 (E leading V) applies to generator action and negative value for
𝛿 (E lagging V) applies to the motor action.
• So, the max steady-state power transfer occurs when 𝛿 = 90°.
Hence, the calculation of 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 from equation (9) will be,
|𝐸||𝑉|
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑋

Q.11 Define equal area criterion for power system stability. Derive the equation
of the critical clearing angle and the critical clearing time.

Ans:
A method known as the equal area criterion can be used for a quick prediction of stability.
This method is based on the graphical interpretation of the energy stored in the rotating mass
as an aid to determine if the machine maintains its stability after a disturbance. This method
is only applicable to a one-machine system connected to an infinite bus or a two-machine
system. Because it provides physical insight to the dynamic behaviour of the machine.

Critical clearing angle:

Expressing area A1 =Area A2 mathematically we have,
𝛿
𝑃𝑖 (𝛿𝑐 −𝛿0 ) = ∫𝛿 1(𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑖 ) 𝑑𝛿
𝑐
𝛿1
∴ 𝑃𝑖 (𝛿𝑐 −𝛿0 ) = ∫𝛿𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿 . 𝑑𝛿 − 𝑃𝑖 (𝛿1 −𝛿𝑐 )
∴ 𝑃𝑖 𝛿𝑐 − 𝑃𝑖 𝛿0 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (− cos 𝛿1 + cos 𝛿𝑐 ) − 𝑃𝑖 𝛿1 + 𝑃𝑖 𝛿𝑐
∴ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (cos 𝛿𝑐 − cos 𝛿1 ) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) …………(10)
Also 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin 𝛿0 …………(11)
Using equation (10) and (11) we get,
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (cos 𝛿𝑐 − cos 𝛿1 ) = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) sin 𝛿0
∴ cos 𝛿𝑐 = cos 𝛿1 + (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) sin 𝛿0 …………(12)
Where 𝛿𝑐 = clearing angle, 𝛿0 = initial power angle, and 𝛿1 = power angle to which the rotor
advances beyond 𝛿𝑐 · For a three-phase fault with 𝑃𝑒 =0,
𝑑2 𝛿 𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖
= …………(13)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐻
𝑑𝛿
Integrating equation (13) twice and utilizing the fact that 𝑑𝑡 = 0 and t = 0 yields
𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖 2
𝛿= 𝑡 + 𝛿0 …………(14)
2𝐻
If 𝑡𝑐 is the clearing time corresponding to a clearing angle 𝛿𝑐 , then we obtain from equation
(14),
𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖
𝛿𝑐 = 𝑡𝑐 2 + 𝛿0
2𝐻
2𝐻(𝛿𝑐 −𝛿0 )
Hence, the critical clearing time is, 𝑡𝑐 = √ …………(15)
𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖
Q.13 Show that angular frequency of the undamped oscillation in synchronous
𝜔𝑠 𝑆𝑝
machine is given by 𝜔 = √
2𝐻
Ans:
𝑑2 𝛿
Consider equation (1) we get, 𝑀𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑡 2 = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 )
|𝐸𝑔 ||𝑉𝑡 |
And ∴ 𝑃𝑒 = sin 𝛿 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝛿
𝑥𝑑
Let the system be operating with steady power transfer of 𝑃𝑒0 = 𝑃𝑖 with torque angle 𝛿0 .
Assume a small increment ∆𝑃 in the electric power with the input from the prime mover
remaining fixed at 𝑃𝑖
(𝛿0 + ∆𝛿). Linearizing the operating point (𝑃𝑒0 , 𝛿0 ) we can write
𝜕𝑃
∆𝑃𝑒 = ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒) ∆𝛿
0
The excursions of ∆𝛿 are then described by
𝑑2 ∆𝛿
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑖 − (𝑃𝑒0 − ∆𝑃𝑒 ) = −∆𝑃𝑒
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 ∆𝛿 𝜕𝑃
or 𝑀 + [ 𝜕𝛿𝑒] ∆𝛿 = 0 …………(16)
𝑑𝑡 2 0
𝜕𝑃 𝑑
or [𝑀𝑝2 + ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒 ) ] ∆𝛿 = 0 where 𝑝 = 𝑑𝑡
0
The system stability to small changes is determined from the characteristic equation
𝜕𝑃
𝑀𝑝2 + ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒) = 0
0
1
𝜕𝑃𝑒
−( ) 2
𝜕𝛿 0
Where two roots are 𝑝 = ±[ ]
𝑀
𝜕𝑃
As long as ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒) is positive, the roots are purely imaginary and conjugate. The system is
0
𝜕𝑃
therefore stable for a small increment in power so long as ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒) > 0
0
𝜕𝑃𝑒
When ( 𝜕𝛿 ) is negative, the roots are real, one positive and the other negative but of equal
0
𝜕𝑃
magnitude. The system is therefore unstable for ( 𝜕𝛿𝑒) < 0
0
𝜕𝑃𝑒
( 𝜕𝛿 ) is known as synchronizing coefficient. This is also called stiffness of synchronous
0
machine. It is denoted as Sp. This coefficient is given by
𝜕𝑃𝑒
𝑆𝑃 = | = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝛿0
𝜕𝛿 𝛿=𝛿0
If we include damping term in swing equation then equation (16) becomes
𝑑2 ∆𝛿 𝑑∆𝛿 𝜕𝑃𝑒
𝑀 +𝐷 +[ ] ∆𝛿 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝛿 0
2
𝑑 ∆𝛿 𝐷 𝑑∆𝛿 1 𝜕𝑃𝑒
or +𝐻 + [ ] ∆𝛿 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑀 𝜕𝛿 0
𝑑2 ∆𝛿 𝐷𝜋𝑓 𝑑∆𝛿 𝑆𝑃 𝜋𝑓
or + + ∆𝛿 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐻 𝑑𝑡 𝐻
𝑑2 ∆𝛿 𝑑∆𝛿 𝐷 𝜋𝑓
or + 2𝜏𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 2 ∆𝛿 = 0 where 𝜏 = 2 √𝐻𝑆
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑃

𝑆𝑃 𝜋𝑓 𝜔𝑠 𝑆𝑃
and 𝜔𝑛 = √ =√ [Showed]
𝐻 2𝐻