Guide to Harvard Intext Citation System in Classics

Essays1
Why reference?

There are many reasons why the inclusion of references in your work is important. If you do
not reference the sources of your information, you risk being accused of using another’s work
as your own (and so of misleading the reader / examiner) - in other words, plagiarism. Clear,
accurate referencing is a crucial step (but not the only one) towards avoiding this.

However, besides academic honesty, there are practical reasons for referencing. If a reader
wishes to take up your argument, they need to know where the materials for that argument
can be found. Perhaps more importantly, to you, if you want to revise the material, or check
something, you need to know exactly where you found it. And, at a very straightforward
level, it is an obvious means by which you can show off the range of your reading and
research to the marker (but remember, the whole point of a reference is that the reader can
check for themselves: do not be tempted to invent a reference - you will be caught!). In the
course of your reading you will encounter many different ways of referencing. Each has its
own merits. In the sections which follow, one of the simplest methods of referencing, the
Harvard system is explained.

The (author/date) Harvard system

The easiest and most acceptable referencing system is called the ‘author : date’ or ‘Harvard’
system. The author, the year, and usually the page number(s) are included in brackets in the
main text, as in the following example:

As has been recently argued, it is surely correct to say that male and female insights,
perspectives and experiences of women’s rites were different (Winkler 1990: 188-89, 206 ).

In books and articles you will see variants of this system (e.g. with a comma instead of a
colon). Any is acceptable, so long as you use it consistently.

Always include the exact page numbers, unless you specifically mean a whole article or
book. Don’t write ‘(Winkler 1990: ch. 1)’ unless you specifically mean the whole chapter.
A reference should be as specific as the occasion requires. For example:

Dr Bloggs’s views on this matter are the basis of two recent studies (Higgs 1986; Hogg
1987).

Dr Bloggs’s views on this matter have been torn to shreds by Higgs (1986: 216 - 17).

Dr Bloggs (pers. comm.) is currently preparing a response to Higgs.

You may lose marks if you fail to cite page numbers when you should.

1
Adapted from a guide created by the Ancient History Department at the University of Leicester
Crediting illustrations

You must also acknowledge your intellectual debt if you copy or adapt an illustration, chart,
graph, map, etc. If you copy it directly and exactly, you must reference it as you would a
direct quotation, with an author-date reference. If you adapt it, then reference it in your
caption as in this example: ‘after Talbert 1987, table 2’ (see below).

When one author cites another (ancient or modern)

If you have read Shipley 1994 who refers to Barker 1985, and you want to refer to Barker’s
views but can’t get hold of Barker 1985 to read them (and it is always best to see if you can
do this first, as Shipley may have misquoted Barker!), what do you do?

 In the text of your essay, put something like ‘(Barker 1985: 123, cited by Shipley
1994: 38)’.
 In the bibliography, give details of both works.
(This means you must note down the details of Barker when you read Shipley!)

Where a modern author cites an ancient author whom you have not read (again it is better to
check the ancient text for yourself but there are instances where it is acceptable to cite an
ancient author via a secondary source, for example in a sourcebook), you must not give the
ancient reference without saying where you found it. To do otherwise is to fabricate your
evidence. Say something like:

(Plutarch, Perikles 9, cited from Shipley 1995: 123)

or

(Shipley 1995: 123, citing Plutarch, Perikles 9)

In such cases, it is not necessary to list the ancient author in the bibliography.

See below on how to cite ancient texts.

Quotations

When to use quotations

Direct quotations may be used, but sparingly! We want to read your text, not a patchwork of
other people’s phrases. Quoting someone’s original words should always serve a clear
purpose in your argument. You may want to disagree with their interpretation, or the words
selected may be a particularly neat way of expressing something. Never use direct quotation
simply to convey narrative or descriptive information. Generally, it is a good idea to avoid
long quotations - after all, it is your own thoughts, interpretation, and argument which we
wish to read. Excessive use of quotation is liable to be penalized.
How to mark a quotation

Quotations less than a line in length, and without a sentence break, should be included within
the ordinary text, in single quotation marks. Quotations containing more than one sentence, or
more than about 40 words, may be single-spaced and indented from the main text. The
following passage contains examples of both:

[ Main text ] Earlier historians believed that the Roman economy was just like the modern
capitalist economy, only smaller (Duncan-Smith 1991: 123). This way of thinking has been
shrewdly characterized as [short phrase in quotation marks ] ‘the modernizing approach’
(Blair 1992: 234). Many recent writers concur:

[ Longer quotation, single-spaced and indented] It is surely preferable to regard the ancient
economy as not merely smaller, but wholly different in nature from the modern. The view of
ancient economic transactions as embedded in social custom and tradition has a better
foundation and strains the sources’ evidence less. (Brown 1993: 345)

[ Main text resumes ] There may, in fact, be a middle way (Kennedy 1994: 456). It is possible
to believe that ancient Romans were interested in commercial profits while not believing that
the economy of the time was similar to today’s.

Note how the indented quotation from Brown does not have quotation marks around it; it
doesn’t need to be highlighted in that way nor is it italicized, as it is already highlighted by
being indented.

Quotations must always be followed by an exact in-text reference to their source, as in

Citing electronic sources

For the correct bibliographical formats, see below. The (author/date) method can be used
where you know the author’s name, otherwise, for the in-text reference, give the short name
of the website, electronic journal, or whatever, and the year of authorship if available -
otherwise the date in brackets when you consulted the web page. Remember that your in-text
reference must match your bibliographic entry!

Ancient Greek and Latin authors

Often in Classics essays, you will need to refer to passages of works by ancient authors
(‘primary sources). You must include the reference in your text, usually in brackets. In this
respect, ancient authors should be treated no differently from modern authors. However, the
referencing of ancient authors presents specific problems and cannot be done in the normal
‘author-date’ fashion.
Format of references

some examples:

Thucydides 4. 4.

Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus, 8.

Aristophanes, Acharnians, lines 450 - 500.

Homer, Odyssey, 16. 345 - 59.

Pindar, Olympian Odes, 4. 21 - 30.

Prose texts are usually divided into ‘books’ (of a few tens of pages) and ‘chapters’ (typically
of a few paragraphs); give the book and chapter numbers. In some cases (e.g. the Plutarch
reference above) there will only be chapter numbers, and in others there may be a third,
intermediate level of numbering also. These various divisions are ancient, although not
normally as old as the original text itself (either of the Hellenistic period, or relating to the
main surviving manuscript tradition from the early Middle Ages). In the case of plays and
poems, give line numbers (usually printed at the top of the page; you may have to be
approximate). In the case of a very long poem like Homer’s Iliad or Odyssey, give the book
and line number(s). In the case of a collection of poems, such as Pindar’s Odes, give the
number of the poem and the line number(s). The reason for using this form of reference,
rather than a page number, is because these ancient divisions are consistently recorded across
almost all editions and translations of an ancient author’s work (whereas a page number
would be different in each edition that you used).

Note that the titles of many ancient works are not consistently referenced. This is often
because the work did not originally have a ‘title’ in the modern sense, or sometimes because
the title can be translated in several ways. If in doubt, use the title of the translation which
you are using, or look the author up in the The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edition,
1996). In some cases, e.g. Thucydides, only one work is known for that author, and so it is
acceptable, as in the example above, to cite the author with the book and chapter numbers
only, without a title for the work.

You may instead refer to the page numbers in a standard translation such as a Penguin
Classic, but only if you cannot ascertain the exact chapter or line numbers-they are
occasionally omitted in some translations. If you do so, you must refer to the translation in
the proper ‘author : date’ fashion. You should still be able, however, to give the book
number, even if you can’t give chapter or line numbers. For example:

Thucydides 4 (trans. Warner 1972: 286).

Do not write:

(Thucydides 1972: 4)

since Thucydides did not write in 1972; that was merely the year in which the translation was
made.
Format of bibliography

Include details of the translation you have used in a separate alphabetical list of ancient
authors (‘Primary Sources’) at the start of the bibliography (see also below). It is best to put
the date at the end of the modern text. For example:

Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War , trans. R. Warner (Penguin Classics). Harmondsworth:

In the bibliography, put the ancient author’s name first, as above. Remember, in your text you
should use the simple form ‘Thucydides 4. 4’ whenever possible.

For the correct format when using a sourcebook, see above, under ‘When one author cites
another (ancient or modern)’.

Bibliographies

All essays, dissertations, and similar pieces of work MUST include a bibliography i.e. a list
of all works cited in the text.

 Use the author/date system and list at the end of the essay the books and articles to
which you have made specific reference (you cannot include works to which you have
not referred in the essay).
 Works must be listed in alphabetical order of authors’ surnames.
 If you do not refer to a work, it should not be in your bibliography.
 Ancient authors to whom you have made specific reference should also be included
in a separate alphabetical list under ‘Primary Sources’, specifying the editions
you have used.

Always include (examples appear below):

 Surname, then initials (not forenames) of all co-authors of the work, in the order in
which they are given in the work.
 Year of publication (and, if it is a monthly periodical, the month; if more frequent,
e.g. weekly, give exact date).
 For books, look for the date of first publication, not the date of the reprint you happen
to have. If the book is a second or later edition, say so and give the date when the
edition you used was first published, e.g. (2nd edition 1995). (A reprint is just that,
whereas a new edition includes revisions and updates.)
 Full title, and any subtitle. These should be taken from the title page of a book (not
the outside cover) or the first page of an article (not the table of contents in the
periodical volume: these are often inaccurate).
 The title of a book should be italicized (not underlined).
 The title of a periodical article or chapter should not be italicized. It may be, but
need not be, put in ‘single quotation marks’.
 A subtitle of a book, article, or chapter should be separated from the main title by a
colon: e.g. Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 - 362 bc.
  For a book forming part of a series, include the series title (and volume number, if
any), which need not be italicized, but may be placed in parentheses: e.g. (States and
Cities of Ancient Greece, 17).
 For a book, give city of publication, then name of publisher. These are usually
stated on the title page (if not there, then on the back of the title page); e.g. ‘London
and New York: Routledge.’ Don’t be confused by the name of the firm that printed
the book, often named on the back of the title page (usually at the bottom). What you
want is the firm or University that published it - i.e. designed and sold it. Don’t give
the country, UK county, or USA state where the work was published (e.g. Italy,
Somerset, California), but give the city or cities. Exception: if the city of publication
is in the USA and has the same name as another familiar place, give the USA state as
well (e.g. ‘Cambridge, Massachusetts’).
 For a chapter in a book with several authors (e.g. an edited volume of essays), give
either the chapter number or the first and last page numbers of the chapter, or both,
plus full details of the book, including its editor(s). See examples below.
 For an article in a periodical or journal, give the name of the periodical (this should
go in italics e.g. Britannia ), the number of the volume, and the first and last page
numbers of the article.
 Indentation. Second and subsequent lines of a bibliography entry look best if they are
indented, as in the examples below (press CTRL-T in Word).
 Capitalization. It is customary (but not essential) to use Capital Letters to Start Each
Main Word in the titles of books and periodicals, but less usual in article and chapter
titles. Either format, however, is acceptable in both kinds of reference.

Other minor variations of punctuation and style are quite acceptable, e.g. putting article or
chapter titles in single quotation marks, putting brackets round the year, using commas in
various places instead of full stops or between author’s surname and initials, or separating
title and subtitle with a full stop instead of a colon.

While there is no single ‘right’ way to lay out a bibliography, you must convey information
that is clear and consistent - use the same sequence of information, and the same
punctuation, for each similar entry.

Get into the habit of noting down the full information about books and articles as you consult
them, in a form that will allow you to make them into standard references in your
bibliography. When you check through your essay, make sure there is no inconsistency
between entries. Also check that they are in alphabetical order of author’s surname.

Examples of correctly formatted bibliography

Books

The first item here includes a series title. All three include city and publisher.
Note that the second line of each entry should be indented.

Cartledge, P. 1979. Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 - 362 bc. (Cities and States
of Ancient Greece.) London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Daniel, G. E. 1967. The Origins and Growth of Archaeology. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Chapters in multi-authored volumes

The example includes a series title and number.

Shipley, G. 1993. Introduction: the limits of war. In J. Rich and G. Shipley (eds), War and
Society in the Greek World (Leicester - Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, 4), 1 - 24.
London and New York: Routledge.

Articles in periodicals

The first example uses quotation marks; the second does not. Choose either style, but be
consistent!

Foxhall, L. 1989. ‘Household, gender and property in classical Athens.’ Classical Quarterly
39: 22 - 44.

Isaac, G. 1971. The diet of early man: aspects of archaeological evidence from Middle
Pleistocene sites in Africa. World Archaeology 2: 278 - 299.

Multiple entries by the same author

List the author’s single-authored works first, arranged by date, then any co-authored works.
Works with the same date should be distinguished by ‘a’, ‘b’, etc. - make sure the citations in
the essay match!

Isaac, G. 1972. The African Pleistocene revisited. Antiquity 29: 35 - 48.

Isaac, G. 1974. More news from the African Pleistocene. Proceedings of the Prehistoric
Society 85: 122 - 130.

Isaac, G. 1978a. Something nearly new from the African Pleistocene. Antiquity 36: 311 - 319.

Isaac, G. 1978b. My Little Problem: Everything you Ever Wanted to Know about the African
Pleistocene but were Afraid to Ask. (African Pleistocene Studies, 247.) London:
Pleistocene Press.

Isaac, G. and Higgs B. 1976. Was there an African Pleistocene? Journal of the Slightly
Obscure Society 22: 101 -1 89.

Ancient Greek and Latin authors

Make a separate list of ancient Greek and Latin authors, and put it before the list of modern
works; title it Primary Sources and the modern works Secondary Sources. Arrange it by
alphabetical order of author. Include the date and details of the translation you used. Include
the series title, such as Penguin Classics or Loeb Classical Texts, in brackets.
Livy. Rome and the Mediterranean , translated by H. Bettenson (Penguin Classics).
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 1976.

Polybius. The Histories, translated by W. R. Paton (Loeb Classical Library). London:

Citing electronic resources

To cite world wide web (www) documents , give the author’s surname and initials; the date
of the document or last revision (if available); the full title of the work; the title of the
complete work (if applicable), in italics ; any version number or file numbers; the full URL;
and the date when you accessed it (in parentheses - this information is important since the
contents of web-pages often change). Example:

Burka, L. P. 1993. A hypertext history of multi-user dimensions. MUD History .

For further details, as well as information on citing other electronic sources such as e-mails,
discussion lists and newsgroups, on-line reference sources, publications and databases,
software programs, and video games, see the short PDF file of fuller guidelines, composed
by Dr Mark Gillings.

More examples of recommended electronic formats:

Crump, E. Re: Preserving writing. Alliance for Computers and Writing Listserv. acw-
1@unicorn.acs.ttu.edu (31 Mar. 1995).

Fine arts. Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. 2nd edition. Edited by E. D. Hirsch, Jr., J. F. Kett,
and J. Trefil. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1993. INSO Corp. America Online. Reference
Desk/Dictionaries/Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (20 May 1996).

ID Software. The Ultimate Doom. New York: GT Interactive Software, 1995.

Warren, C. Working to ensure a secure and comprehensive peace in the Middle East. US
Dept of State Dispatch 7:14, 1 Apr. 1996. FastDoc. OCLC. File #9606273898 (12 Aug.
1996).