TRANSDUCERS

Transducers
The term transducer is applied to any device which converts a mechanical or other measurable phenomenon into an electrical one or vice versa.

Resistive transducers
Temperature sensors (metals) Rt = Ro(1+t+t2+t3+.) where Rt is resistance of a length of wire at toC Ro is the resistance at 0oC , , are the temp coefficient of resistance with >>. For most metals resistance increases reasonably linearly with temp and , etc. can be neglected. Then Rt = Ro(1+t)

 Temperature sensors (Semiconductors)

Resistance changes with temp. A group of transducers based on this are thermistors Made from mixture of metal oxides such as Cr, Co, Fe, Mn, Ni Formed into various forms such as beads, discs and rods. The resistance-temp graph is highly non-linear and described by the exponential relationship

Rt = K e

where K and are constant. The resistance decreases with an increase in tempchange in resistance is larger than change in temp Decrease in resistance causes increase in current which in turn increases temp further. This effect continues until heat dissipates and power supplied equalizes.

Sliding-Contact Devices

Variable-Inductance Transducer Elements

Strain gauges
When a length of wire, or metal foil or semiconductor, is stretched its resistance changes. The fractional change in resistance, R/R is directly proportional to the strain
R/R = G (where G is a constant called gauge factor) For most material G is positivemeans resistance increases when strain is increased, i.e. tension increases resistance, compression decreases it.

The resistance of a strain gauge is changed not only by a change in strain but also a change in temp.
Wires of Cu or Fe Semiconductorstrips of Si doped with n-type or ptype material.
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Capacitive Transducers

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Photoconductive cells
It is light-dependent resistorits resistance decrease as the intensity of light falling on it increases. Cadmium sulphidecommonly used, however, others are also in use Resistance variesmega ohms in the dark to few hundred ohms in bright light Response timetypically of the order of 50 m.

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 Photoemissive detectors:
A cathode-anode combination in an evacuated glass In a proper circuit (several hundred volts required) light impingement on the cathodecurrent produced and amplified.

Photovoltaic cells
Sandwich of unlike materials such as iron base covered with thin layer of iron selecide. When exposed to light, a voltage is developed across the sandwich. Requires no external power other than light.

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Piezoelectric sensors
Piezoelectric effect
Certain materials can generate an electric charge when subjected to mech. strain or, conversely can change dimensions when subjected to voltage. E.g. quartz, Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartarate), barium titanate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, certain organic polymers, and even ordinary sugar. None of the above materials possess all the desirable properties, such as stability, high output, insensitivity to temp extremes and humidity, and the ability to be formed into desired shape
Rochelle salt provides a high output, but requires protection from moisture, and cannot be used above 45oC Quartzmore stable but has low output
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What is a crystal?
A class of materials arranged in a definite, geometric pattern in three dimensions (table salt and sugar are common examples) Quartz Crystal is silicon and oxygen arranged in a crystalline structure (SiO2). SiO2 is also found abundantly in nature in a non-crystal structure (amorphous) as sand.

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A method for predicting the behavior of a crystal: The unit cell

+ Represents silicon atom

Represents oxygen atom

Not actually correct, but this method allows a good understanding of quartz crystals
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The unit cell of crystal silicon dioxide + + +

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+++
Unit Cell at Rest
Unit Cell Under Mechanical Compression (pushing force): Electrical polarity as shown
+ +

+ + +

---

Neutral Charge

Unit Cell Under mechanical Tension (pulling force): Electrical polarity reverses. + +
-

--+ +

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The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material at rest: No forces applied, so net current flow is 0

Crystal
+-+-+-

Current Meter =0 Charges cancel each other, so no current flow

+-+-+21

The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material with forces applied in direction of arrows.. Crystal ----Force

+++++

Current Meter deflects in + direction

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The Piezoelectric Effect

Changing the direction of the applied force.. Crystal ++++
Force

-----

Current Meter deflects in direction

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The electromechanical effect

Now, replace the current meter with a power source capable of supplying the same current indicated by the meter.

Crystal
switch
+-+-+-

charges cancel
+-+-+-

power source

. With the switch open, the crystal material is now at rest again: the positive charges cancel the negative charges.

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The electromechanical effect

When the switch is closed, and you apply the exact amount of power to get the same current that resulted when you squeezed the crystal, the crystal should deform by the same amount!!

Crystal ++++

+ side power source (battery)

-----

- side

. and, the crystal should get shorter and fatter.

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The electromechanical effect

What will happen if you switched the battery around??

Crystal ----- side power source (battery)

+++++

+ side

. the crystal should get longer and skinnier.

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Summary of the Piezoelectric & Electromechanical Effect

A deformation of the crystal structure (eg: squeezing it) will result in an electrical current. Changing the direction of deformation (eg: pulling it) will reverse the direction of the current. If the crystal structure is placed into an electrical field, it will deform by an amount proportional to the strength of the field. If the same structure is placed into an electrical field with the direction of the field reversed, the deformation will be opposite.
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 Most of the piezoelectric materials are single crystal; barium titanate is polycrystalline, hence shaping and sizing is easy.
Polarizing treatment is necessary to induce the effect: Element heated above Curie point of 120oC A high DC voltage (of the order of 10,000 V/cm) Element cooled with the voltage applied.

Piezoelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoridelow cost piezoelectric transducer with relatively high voltage outputs.
Formed into thin films (~30 micron thick)with silvered electrodes on either side Light, flexible and easily manipulated
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Hall Effect Sensors

The Hall effect is the appearance of a transverse voltage difference on a conductor carrying a current perpendicular to a magnetic field. Present in any conductor carrying a magnetic field but more pronounced in semiconductors.
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Thermoelectric transducers
Thermocouples
There is a potential difference between two different metals across the junction. The potential difference depends on the metals used and the temperature. A thermocouple is just wires of two different metals forming a complete circuit. When same temp at both junctionssame potential difference across each junction. A temp difference between two junctionproduces a net e.m.f.the value depends on the two metals and the temp. Usually one metal is held at 0oC

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 Assumptionone of the junction is at 0oC

If other temp.then law of intermediate temperatures has to be used to determine the e.m.f.

Statementemf of a thermocouple with junctions at 1 and 3 is the algebraic sum of the emfs of the two thermocouples of the same materials with junctions at 1 and 2, and 2 and 3.
Compensation circuits can be used when the reference junction is not at a constant temp. but allowed to vary with the ambient temp.
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Electrochemical transducers Ion selector electrodes

It gives response which depends mainly on the conc. of single type of ion in the solution. A reference electrode is also used. E.g. hydrogen ion measurement for measuring pH.

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Elastic transducers
Proving ring
A steel ring which deforms from its circular shape under the action of forces. The amount of deformation is a measure of forces and can be measured by dial indicator. Are capable of high accuracy Are used for forces in the range of 2 kN to 2000 kN.

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 Load Cells
The deformation of a cylinder on a box under the action of forces can be used as a measure of forces. Such a system is known as load cell. The deformation is measured by means of strain gauges. Four identical gauges If the load cell is under compression then R1 and R3 are in compressionthe strain = -(F/AE), where F is the force applied, A its cross-sectional area and E the tensile modulus of the cell material. Strain gauges R2 and R4 are in tension, the strain being +(F/AE) where is Poissons ratio of the cell material.

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 Diaphragms
The movement of the center of a circular diaphragm when there is a pressure difference between its two sides is the basis of a pressure gauge.

Capsules and bellows

Can be considered to be just two diaphragms back-toback. Bellows being a stack of capsules
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 Bourdon tubes
A bourdon tube is an almost rectangular or elliptical shaped tube made from materials such as stainless steel or phosphor bronze.In one form the tube is Cshaped. When pressure inside tube increases the C opens out hence displacement measures pressure. A helical form gives greater deflections. Also exists in twisted form the pressure changes the tube to untwisted.
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Pneumatic transducers
Flapper nozzle
Air at constant pressure Ps flows through the orifice and escapes through the nozzle. At flapper closed, i.e., x=0; no air escapesWhen x increases pressure drops so becomes measure of displacement of the flapper The transducer has high sensitivity but a small range of measurement, typically 0.05 mm.

Ps P= 2 1 + 16( d n x 2 / d o4 )
where dn is the dia of the nozzle do is the dia of the orifice
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Differential pressure transducers

Flowmeters
When a fluid flows from a wider dia. to a narrower dia. pipe its velocity increases and the pressure drops. If the fluid is incompressible, Bernoullis equation gives for a horizontal pipe 2 2

v1 P v2 P2 + 1 = + 2 g g 2 g g

Where v1 is the fluid velocity, P1 the pressure at the pipe, v2 the velocity and P2 the pressure at the constriction, and the fluid density. Hence, since the density does not change, the volume of the fluid Q passing through the wide section per second must equal the volume passing through the constriction. Hence Q=A1v1=A2v2 where A1 is the area of the tube and A2 that at the constriction. In practice, the flow is not frictionless and the cross-sectional area of the moving fluid may not be the same as the pipe. Hence, a correction factor is usually applied. There are number of forms of flowmeters based on the measurement 39 system of the pressure difference between the flows.

Mechanical transducers

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