Applied Linguistics to

Foreign Language
Teaching and Learning
Main issues of this unit

 What is a method?
 What are the components of a method?
 What is an approach?
 Overview of most well known methods
in language teaching.
 Do methods help teachers?
 Problems with methods.
 Is there a super method?
What is a
method?
 All methods include
prescriptions for the teacher
and the learners.
 All methods are a pre-
packaged set of specifications
of how the teacher should
teach and how the learner
should learn derived from a
particular theory of language
and a theory of language
learning.
 For the teacher, methods
prescribe what materials and
activities should be used, how
they should be used and what the
role of the teacher should be.
 For learners, methods prescribe
what approach to learning the
learner should take and what
roles the learner should adopt in
the classroom.
What is an
approach?
 Underlyingeach method is a
theory on the nature of language
and a theory on the nature of
language learning both of which
comprise the approach.
 These theories are derived from
the areas of linguistics,
sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics
and are the source of principles
and practices of language
teaching.
What is an approach
influenced by?

• Theory of language: How is

language viewed?
‒ Structural View of Language.
‒ Functional View of Language.
What is an approach
influenced by?

 Theory of language learning: How

do learners learn the language?
 What are the psychological and
cognitive processes involved (habit
formation, induction, inferencing,
generalization)?
 What are the conditions that need to
be met for these learning processes to
be activated?
FOCUS OF TEACHING
If language is seen as a system of
structurally related elements for the
coding of meaning:
 What dimension of language is
prioritized?
 Grammatical dimension.
 What needs to be taught?
 Phonological units.
 Grammatical units and operations.
 Lexical items.
FOCUS OF TEACHING
If language is viewed as a vehicle
for the expression of functional
meaning:
 What dimension of language is
prioritized?
 semantic and communicative
dimension of language.
 What needs to be taught?
 functions, notions of language.
What are the
components of a
method ?
Syllabus
 Syllabus is the level at which theory
is put into practice and at which
choices are made about the content
to be taught, the skills to be
developed, the order of the content
etc.
 The theory of language adopted will
affect the organisation and selection
of language content.
 Different methods have different
types of syllabi associated with
them i.e. different ways of selecting
and organising content.
Teaching/Learning Practices
 Types of learning tasks and activities to
be used in the classroom.
 Roles of learners in the classroom: the
degree of control that learners have over
their learning, roles that learners will
assume in the classroom, learning
groupings recommended.
 Roles of teachers: functions that the
teacher is to fulfil in the classroom, the
degree to which the teacher influences
the learning process and the kind of
interaction between the teacher and the
learners.
Teaching/Learning Practices
 Role of materials: the function of
materials in the learning process and
the forms they take. In some
methods, materials are designed to
replace the teacher so that learning
can take place independently. In
others, materials are teacher proof
so that even poorly trained teachers
with imperfect control of the
language can use them.
Assessment
How students’
language knowledge is
to be assessed.
Error correction
policy.
How are
these three
Different theories about the
nature of language and how
languages are learned (the
approach) imply different ways
of teaching language (the
method) and different methods
make use of different kinds of
classroom activities (the
techniques).
19
Examples of methods
Grammar Translation METHOD

 Traditional way of teaching Latin and

Greek. In the 19th century used to teach
French, German and English.
 Typical lesson consisted of a)
presentation of grammatical rule, b)
specially written text that demonstrated
the rule, c) list of new words, d)
translation exercises, e) grammar
exercises.
Grammar Translation METHOD

Emphasis on learning to read

and write.
Vocabulary is taught in the
form of lists of isolated
words.
Grammar Translation METHOD

 Long, elaborate explanations of

the intricacies of grammar are
given.
 Medium of instruction was the
mother tongue.
 Noprovision for the oral use of
language.
Grammar Translation METHOD

 Littleattention is paid to the

content of texts, which are treated
as exercises in in grammatical
analysis.
 Often the only drills are exercises in
translating disconnected sentences
from the target language into the
mother tongue.
Direct Method: Early 1900’s

 Posited by Charles Berlitz.

 Second language learning is similar
to first language learning.
 Emphasis on:
 oral interaction,
 spontaneous use of language,
 no translation,
 little if any analysis of grammatical
rules and structures.
Direct Method: Early 1900’s

 Classroom instruction was conducted in

the target language.
 There was an inductive approach to
grammar.
 Only everyday vocabulary was taught.
 Concrete vocabulary was taught through
pictures and objects.
 Abstract vocabulary was taught by
association of ideas.
Direct Method: Early 1900’s

 New teaching points were introduced

orally.
 Communication skills were organized
around question-answer exchanges
between teachers and students.
 Speech and listening comprehension
were taught.
 Correct pronunciation and grammar
were emphasised.
The Audiolingual Method (1950’s)

 Outbreak of the World War II:

 Heightened the need to become orally
proficient.
 “The Army Method” (an oral-based
approach to language learning).
 Influencedby structuralism and
behaviourism:
 Identify the grammatical structures and
the basic sentence patterns.
 Practice these patterns by systematic
attention to pronunciation and intensive
oral drilling.
The Audiolingual Method (1950’s)

New material is presented

in dialogue form.
There is dependency on
mimicry, memorization of
set phrases, and
overlearning.
The Audiolingual Method (1950’s)

 By constant repetition the learner

develops habits. Language learning
is seen as acquiring a set of
appropriate mechanical habits;
errors are not accepted because
the lead to the development of
bad habits.
 Therole of the teacher is to
develop good language habits.
The Audiolingual Method (1950’s)

 There is little or no grammatical

explanation. Grammar is taught
inductively.
 Great importance is attached to
pronunciation.
 Very little use of the mother tongue by
teachers is permitted.
 Successful responses are reinforced.
 There is great effort to get students to
produce error-free utterances.
Typical audiolingual activities

 Dialog memorization.
 Repetition drill: Students
repeat the teacher’s model
as accurately and as quickly
as possible to learn the
lines of the dialog.
Typical audiolingual activities

 Transformation drill: The teacher

gives students a certain kind of
sentence pattern. Students are
asked to transform a sentence into
a negative sentence.
 Question-and-answer drill: This
drill gives students practice with
answering questions.
Typical audiolingual activities

 Complete the dialog: Selected words

are erased from a dialog. Students
complete the dialog by filling the
blanks with the missing words.
 e.g. Lucy: I hear Mary got the first prize in
that painting competition.
 Rose: …
 Lucy: Did she really?
 Rose: Yes she did. I saw her painting and it
really was good.
Designer Methods (Humanistic
Approaches) 1970’s 1980’s

 Influenced by principles of psychology

and psychotherapy.
 Developed in 70’s and 80’s mainly in US.
 The Silent way.
 Total physical response.
 Suggestopedia.
 Community language learning.
 The silent way (Caleb Gattegno)

 Characterized by a problem-solving
approach.
 Develops independence and autonomy
and encourages students to cooperate
with each other.
 Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers
or creates rather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned.
 Learning is facilitated by accompanying
(mediating) physical objects).
 Learning is facilitated by problem solving the
material to be learned.
The silent way (Caleb Gattegno)

 Sound-colour chart: Each colour symbolizes one

sound.
Typical techniques
 Sound-Colour Chart: The teacher refers
students to a color-coded wall chart
depicting individual sounds in the target
language - students use this to point out
and build words with correct pronunciation.
 Teacher's Silence: Teacher is generally
silent, only giving help when it is absolutely
necessary.
 Peer Correction: Students encouraged to
help each other in a cooperative and not
competitive spirit.
 Typical techniques
 Self-correctionGestures: Teacher uses
hands to indicate that something is
incorrect or needs changing - e.g.. using
fingers as words then touching the
finger/word that is in need of correction.
 Word Chart: Words are depicted on
charts, the sounds in each word
corresponding in colour to the Sound-
Colour Chart described above - students
use this to build sentences.
Typical techniques

 FidelChart: A chart that is

color-coded according to the
sound-colour chart but
includes the various English
spellings so that they can be
directly related to actual
sounds.
Suggestopedia
 One of the innovative methods
dating back to the 1970’s (Georgi
Lozanov).
 Lozanov suggests that the human
brain could process great quantities
of material if simply given the right
conditions for learning, among which
are a state of relaxation and giving
over the control of the teacher.
Music is central to this method.
Suggestopedia
 Lozanov (1982) indicates that
this method transcends the
language classroom and can be
applied in other school subjects.
He claims that about 200 to 240
new words may be introduced
each lesson.
Suggestopedia
 Learning is facilitated in an environment
that is as comfortable as possible,
featuring soft cushioned seating and dim
lighting.
 "Peripheral" learning is encouraged
through the presence in the learning
environment of posters and decorations
featuring the target language and various
grammatical information.
 The teacher assumes a role of complete
authority and control in the classroom.
Suggestopedia
 Self-perceived and psychological
barriers to learners' potential to learn
are "desuggested".
 Students are encouraged to be child-
like, take "mental trips with the
teacher" and assume new roles and
names in the target language in order
to become more "suggestible".
 Baroque music is played softly in the
background to increase mental
relaxation and potential to take in and
retain new material during the lesson.
Suggestopedia
 Students work from lengthy dialogs
in the target language, with an
accompanying translation into the
students' native language.
 Errorsare tolerated, the emphasis
being on content and not
structure. Grammar and
vocabulary are presented and given
treatment from the teacher, but
not dwelt on.
Suggestopedia
 Homework is limited to students re-
reading the dialog they are studying
- once before they go to sleep at
night and once in the morning
before they get up.
 Music,drama and "the Arts" are
integrated into the learning process
as often as possible.
Suggestopedia
Total Physical Response
 TPR is an approach to teaching
a second language, based on
listening linked to physical
activities which are designed to
reinforce comprehension.
 TPR is a method developed by
Dr. James J. Asher to aid
learning second languages.
Total Physical Response
 Themethod relies on the
assumption that when learning a
second or additional language,
that language is internalized
through a process of code-
breaking similar to first language
development.
 Studentsrespond to commands
that require physical movement.
Total Physical Response
 Successful second language
learning should be a parallel
process to child first language
acquisition.
 Appropriate activities can
produce stress-free learning.
 Learners are encourage to
speak when they feel ready to
speak.
Total Physical Response
 Theory of language:
 a grammar based view of language.
 verb in ımperative form.
 Theory of language learning:
 a stimulus-response view.
 An emphasis on learning to
communicate through interaction in
the target language. Authentic and
meaningful communication should be
the goal of classroom activities.
 Communicative language teaching
(1980s)
 The introduction of authentic
texts into the learning situation.
 The provision of opportunities
for learners to focus, not only on
the language but also on the
learning process itself.
Communicative language teaching
(1980s)
 Anenhancement of the learner's
own personal experiences as
important contributing elements
to classroom learning.
 Anattempt to link classroom
language learning with language
activation outside the classroom.
Communicative language teaching
(1980s)
 Fluency is an important dimension of
communication.
 Communication involves the integration
of different language skills.
 Learning is a process of creative
construction and involves trial and
error.
Task-based language learning

 Task-based language learning

(TBLL) is a method of
instruction which focuses on
the use of authentic language,
and students doing meaningful
tasks using the target
language; for example, visiting
the doctor, conducting an
interview, or calling customer
services for help.
Task-based language learning

 Assessment is primarily based

on task outcome (ie: the
appropriate completion of
tasks) rather than simply
accuracy of language forms.
This makes TBLL especially
popular for developing target
language fluency and student
confidence.
Task-based language learning

 In TBLL the role of the teacher

changes from that of an instructor
and prosecutor of errors to that of
a supporter and inventor of tasks
which her/his learners enjoy doing.
 It proved useful to divide the
learning process in TBLL in three
phases: The pre-task phase, the
doing of the task, and the post-task
phase. Taken together they form a
task cycle. The major role of the
teacher changes from phase to
phase.
Are there
drawbacks to the
use of methods?

58
Problems associated with methods

 Nogeneral agreement on what

method is: Any principled choice of
techniques can be termed “method”.
 Some methods not based on clear
language and language learning
theory.
 Methods are open to wide
interpretation by materials
developers and teachers.
Problems associated with methods

 Methods that present themselves

as “state of the art” have in
essence been around for thousands
of years. Total corpus of ideas
available to language teachers has
not basically changed in 2000
years. In essence methods
represent different configurations
of the same basic options.
Problems associated with methods

 The rise and fall of methods is mainly

due to the influence of profit seekers,
promoters and forces of the
intellectual marketplace. Methods
become influential when they gain
the seal of approval by university
departments.
 Language teaching is a massive
industry where much is done in the
name of profit and glory.
Problems associated with methods

 Most methods have been developed

in western developed countries (US
and UK). Fallacy that anything
imported by US and UK is by nature
effective and advanced.
 Methods developed in a specific
educational, social and cultural
context cannot be exported
wholesale and used in countries with
different philosophies, values and
beliefs.
Eclectic
Approach
63
Eclectic Approach in Teaching
English
 Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Mellow
(2000) both have used the term
principled eclecticism to describe a
desirable, coherent, pluralistic
approach to language teaching.
 Eclecticism involves the use of a
variety of language learning activities,
each of which may have very different
characteristics and may be motivated
by different underlying assumptions.
Eclectic Approach in Teaching
English
 The use eclecticism is due to the
fact that there are strengths as well
as weaknesses of single theory
based methods. Reliance upon a
single theory of teaching has been
criticized because the use of a
limited number of techniques can
become mechanic.
Eclectic Approach in Teaching
English
 The teacher decides what
methodology or approach to use
depending on the aims of the
lesson and the learners in the
group. Almost all modern course
books have a mixture of
approaches and methodologies.
Advantages of an eclectic approach

 Safety:The use of a variety of

ideas and procedures from
different existing approaches and
methods will increase the chances
of learning taking place.
 Interest:Teachers need to use
different techniques to hold the
learners' attention.
Advantages of an eclectic approach

 Diversity:Different
learning/teaching contexts require
different methodologies.
 Flexibility:
Awareness of a range of
available techniques will help
teachers exploit materials better
and manage unexpected situations.
Informed teaching is bound to be
eclectic.