Cells

Are the building blocks of organisms.

(Av.size: 20 micrometers)

Small due to:

 Cell membrane considerations

 Nucleus to cytoplasm ratio
 Supply to demand ratio

Electron microscope

Uses a beam of electrons.

ADVANTAGE- HAS A: DISADVANTAGE- SPECIMEN MUST BE:

 Shorter wavelength  Dead

 Greater resolution  Dehydrated

Organelles

 Are membrane bound structures.

 Have specialised functions to perform.
 Some do not have a membrane surrounding them.
 chloroplast & permanent vacuoles are only found in plant cells.

Nucleus

 Controls all cell activities

 Contains genes
 Contains code for protein synthesis
 Involved in production of Ribosome’s & RNA (essential for cell division)

Structure

 Contains- nucleic acids (DNA&RNA)

 Double membrane = Nuclear envelope
 Encrusted with ribosome’s
 Covered in pores
 Continuous with RER

RER

 Protein isolation & transport

Structure of RER

 Consists of interconnecting flattened tubules (cisternae) stacked together.

 Membrane is encrusted with ribosome’s (Polysome configuration).

SER

 Steroid synthesis
 Lipid synthesis
 Lipid & steroid transportation
 Storage of Ca ions

Structure

 No ribosomes
 Rarely form cisternae
 Membrane distinctly more tubular & smooth

ER in general

 Increases in surface area for chemical reactions

 Provides a pathway for transporting materials through the cell
 Collects & stores materials made by the cell.

Ribosomes

2 types

 70s prokaryotes (+ chloroplasts and mitochondria)

 80s eukaryotes

structure

Consists of small & large subunit.

Golgi Apparatus

 A stack of flattened cavities

 Forms lysosomes
 Produces enzymes for secretion
 Protein and carbohydrate combine to form glycoprotein

Vesicles

Contain proteins for:

 Secretion
 To become part of plasma membrane
 To become functions of enzymes
Lysosomes

 Contain digestive hydrolytic enzyme

 Fuse with the target, enzymes breakdown the target, products are absorbed by the cell
 Secretes their enzymes outside the cell to breakdown other cells
 Digests stuff taken in from the environment by the cell
 Digests parts of cells e.g.: worn out organelles (autolysis)

Mitochondria

 Synthesis of ATP
 Biosynthesis
 Found in all eukaryotes except mature red blood cells.
 Number depends on activity of cell.
 High metabolically active ones- have large numbers.
 Low ones- have small numbers.

Contains

70s ribosome’s, DNA circlet, Matrix- fluid of mitochondria, double membrane & Cristae which is an inner
folded membrane containing stalked particles.

Chloroplast

 Site of photosynthesis

Contains

 Lamellae, DNA circlet, double membrane, Stroma- fluid of chloroplast, starch grains, granum,
thylakoid & chlorophyll.

Cell wall

 Contains cellulose & hemi cellulose.

 Are fully permeable & strong.

Structure

 X- weave made from interwoven fibres.

 Consists of straight chains of beta-glucose, forms micro fibrils & macro fibrils

Centrioles

 Forms the spindle during cell division

Structure

 2 cylinders of protein microtubules arranged at 90 degrees

 Not membrane bound
Differences between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cells

FEATURE PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE

Size Small about 0.5 micrometers Up to 40 micrometers
DNA in form of linear chromosomes ( in
Genetic material Circular DNA (in cytoplasm)
nucleus)
Many organelles:

 Double membranes e.g.: nucleus,

Few present, none membrane mitochondria & chloroplasts
Organelles
bound
 Single membrane e.g.: GA, ER &
lysosomes

 Fungi: rigid, formed from

polysaccharide, chitin.
Rigid formed from glycoproteins  Plant: rigid, formed from
Cell walls polysaccharides. E.g.: cellulose.
(mainly murein)
 Animals no cell wall

Ribosome’s 70s 80s

Bacterial cells also contain flagellum, plasmid and capsule.

 Cells form specialised cells, which form tissues.

 Tissues- are cells of one type, which carry out one function. E.g.: muscle, nerves
 Organ- is a structure made up of different tissues performing certain tasks.

Epithelial cells of small intestine

 Microvilli increase surface area for absorption.

 Mitochondria synthesises ATP for active transport

Palisade mesophyll cell

 Elongated to absorb light

 Contains many chloroplasts for photosynthesis

Differential centrifugation

Used to obtain a sample of isolated organelles.

 Homogenise sample of cells

o Conditions
o Ice cold- to stop biological processes
o Isotonic solution- to prevent osmotic damage
 Add solution to a centrifuge & spin at a low speed
o Densest organelles spin down first. E.g.: nucleus
 Place supernatant back into centrifuge & spin at a higher speed
 o Next organelle spins down e.g.: mitochondria
 Repeat & spin & higher speed
o e.g.: RER, SER, GA.

Cell transport

Plasma membranes

 Consists of 40% lipids & 60% protein.

 The polar nature of phospholipids explains membrane assembly.
 Phospholipid heads are hydrophilic.
 Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic.

Fluid mosaic model

 Fluid- phospholipids move around the medium.

 Mosaic- phospholipids are not attached to each other/arranged in sequence.

Movement in + out of cells

1. Diffusion (passive)

 Small, gas mols pass between phospholipid mols in membrane. (H-L)

 Water is a special case (osmosis)

2. Facilitated diffusion (passive)

 Movement of lipid soluble, small & gas mols from a (H-L) conc. through intrinsic membrane
proteins
 Fatty acid tails creates a hydrophobic barrier to entry.
 2 types of f-d proteins
 Pore (channel) proteins
 Can be gated by chemicals / a change in voltage is required to open the protein pore.
 Carrier proteins
 Mols. undergo a conformational shape change.
 Small mols. that cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer, glucose, charged mols., ions.
Na, K move by facilitated diffusion.

3. Osmosis (passive)

 Movement of water mols from a less to more (-) WP via a selectively permeable.
 Pure (distilled) water has the highest WP = 0 & has a greater average KE of water mols.
 Water + solute has a (-) WP & has a less average KE of water mols.
 WP is the ability of water mols to move. (Kpa)
Osmosis & plant cells

 WP = OP + PP
 Cell WP = cytoplasm’s OP + wall PP
 When plant fully turgid WP=0

Passive transport in general

 Uses KE of mols., or ions, themselves as the motive power to move these materials… so
direction of movement depends upon concentration & / electrical (charge) gradients.
 E.g.: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

4. Active transport (active)

 Uses energy from ATP to move molecules / ions against unfavourable concentration & /
electrical gradients. (L-H)
 Movement is against conc. gradient
 Requires the hydrolysis of ATP
 E.g.: Na, K pumping by nerve cell membranes.

5. Bulk transport (active)

1. Endocytosis

 Into cells (active process)

 Plasma membrane forms a vesicle around substance & vesicles taken into cell.
 Phagocytosis = cells + solid particles e.g.: macrophages
 Pinocytosis = cells + dissolved molecules

2. Exocytosis

 Out of cell (active process)

 Materials formed by the cell are packaged in secretary vesicles, which fuse with the plasma
membrane to release their contents.
 E.g.: secreted proteins (digestive enzymes & hormones)

PROTEINS
TRANSPORT ATP REQUIRED HIGH TO LOW
INVOLVED

Simple diffusion N Y N

Facilitated diffusion N Y Y

Active Transport Y N Y

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