BIOLOGY SHORT NOTE FOR GRADE 11

How do substances cross the plasma membrane?

The transport of substances across the plasma membrane involves two major processes.
A. PASSIVE PROCESSES
 Do not need energy (ATP) to move molecules through cell membrane.
 Rely on the kinetic energy of the particles of the substances & concentration gradient.
 Include simple diffusion , facilitated diffusion , and osmosis.

i. Simple Diffusion
It is the movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
 Caused by random motion of the particles of the substances.
 KE & Concentration gradient drive diffusion.
 Substances spread out uniformly.
 To pass through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must be:
 Small
 Lipid soluble
 Non charged
 Gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide , water , Lipid soluble molecules like (hydro carbons,
alcohol, & some vitamins ) and small non charged molecules like NH3 are transported
by simple diffusion.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion across a membrane:

 Concentration gradient
 Thickness of the membrane
 Surface area of the membrane
 Temperature

Importance of Diffusion to cells & Human

 To obtain nutrients & gases.

  Excrete metabolic wastes.

 Maintain suitable PH & ionic concentration with in the cell for enzyme activity.

ii. Facilitated Diffusion

It is the transport of substances through cell membrane along the concentration
gradient with the aid of carrier proteins or channel proteins with an ion pore. Like simple
diffusion it depends on concentration gradient.
 Channel & Carrier proteins are specific to transport particles.
 The channel proteins allow ions, medium sized particles ,& water without any change
in shape.
 The Carrier proteins move Glucose & amino acids across cell membrane undergoing
conformational change.

FACTORS AFFECTING FACILITATED DIFFUSION

 Number of protein channels or carrier proteins present in the membrane.
 Concentration gradient.
 Thickness of the membrane.
 Time taken for the reaction with the carrier

Importance of Facilitated Diffusion

 Cells obtain food for cellular respiration.
 Neurons communicate
 Muscle contraction
 Small intestine cells transport food to blood stream.
 Please Refer Figure 4.26 on page 131 in your text book.

iii. Osmosis
It is a special case of diffusion which involves the movement of water through a semi
permeable membrane.

 From a lower concentrated solution to a higher concentrated solution.

 From hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution.

 From an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential.

WATER POTENTIAL
 Is the concentration of water molecules.
 Is the sum of two opposing forces, osmosis & turgor pressure that can cause the
movement of water in & out of the cell.
 Is used as a measure of water movement from one place to another place in
plants.
 Is measured in terms of pressure. The unit is pascal ( k.pa or M.pa)

 Pure water has the highest possible osmotic potential.

The rate of osmosis is influenced by:

 Surface area of the membrane.
 Difference in water potential.
 Distance the molecules must travel.
ACTIVITY 1
 Explain the feature of weak (dilute) solution and strong solution (concentrated
solution)?(5%)

What Happens to Cells Placed in Solutions of Different Concentration?

1. Hypotonic solution
 A solution with low concentration of solute.
 Has higher water potential than the cell.
 In this solution, the cell gain water by osmosis & swell. The pressure
eventually burst the weak plasma membrane in animal cells. And this is
called Haemolysis. In plant cells however, the cells become turgid.
Turgidity is important in supporting young non woody plants stems.

2. Hypertonic Solution

 A solution with high concentration of solute. Having lower water potential

than the cell.
  In this solution the cytoplasm of the cell loses water by osmosis &
shrinks.
 No pressure from the cytoplasm on cell membrane or cell wall &
the cell is said to be flaccid( lacking tention). Plant cell has been
plasmolysed & followed by wilting if plants are not watered.
 Crenation: shrinkage of blood cells placed in hypertonic solution.

3. Isotonic solution
A solution having same water potential as the cell.
 There is no change in the cell placed in isotonic solution.
 Please Refer Figure 4.28 & 4.29 on page 134 in your text book.

B. ACTIVE PROCESS
Some times substances must be moved against concentration gradient. It includes:
iv. Active Transport
Is the transport of substances across plasma membrane against
concentration gradient. It requires:
 Energy (ATP)
 Pump(transport): is a transmembrane protein used to
actively transport substances across cell membrane.

Importance of Active transport:

 Bring an essential molecules such as:

 Ions
 Amino acids
 Glucose
 Nucleotides & other lipid insoluble substances.

 Rid unwanted molecules from the cell

 Maintain homeostasis

 Regulate the volume of cells by controlling the osmotic

potential
  Control cellular PH

v. Endocytosis
 Large particles are engulfed by the plasma membrane invaginating &
forming a vesicle.
 It uses energy(ATP)
 It can happen in a number of ways :

 Phagocytosis ( Cellular eating) : is engulfing large molecules or whole cell.

 It involves the formation of pseudopodia to
enclose the particle out side the cell.
 Enclosed substance form an internal vesicle
which is then moved in side the cell.
 Examples: Amoeba, Macrophages, White blood
cells.

 Pinocytosis(Cellular Drinking): is ingestion of liquid & small particles dissolved in

liquids.
 It differs from phagocytosis only in scale of the particles.
 It does not need the formation of pseudopodia.
 Occurs in nearly all cell types in almost all times. Example: intestinal cells,
kidney cells, root hair cells ( plant root cells)

 Receptor mediated endocytosis : Is a process by which cells absorb substances like

metabolites, hormones. By the infolding of plasma membrane vesicles containing
proteins with receptor sites. These proteins are specific the molecule being
absorbed.
Exmple: Uptake of cholesterol by animal cells.

vi. Exocytosis
Is the movement of large substances by a vesicle outside of a cell.
 ATP is used to alter the configuration of the molecules.
 Substances(macromolecules) moved from inside to outside of the cell by
 exocytosis includes:
 Proteins
 Polysaccharides
 Hormones
 Neurotransmitters
ACTIVITY 2
 Compare the two types of transport processes. You can refer table 4.4 (page 130) &
table 4.5 (page137) in your text book and summarize the transport process. (5%)

THE OTHER ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. The nucleus :
 Occupies about 10% of the volume of a cell.
 Has several components. The major components are:

 The nuclear envelope :

 A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
 It is attached to ER.
 There are nuclear pores which allow the passage of selected
molecules between the nucleus & cytoplasm.

 The nucleolus
 Small organelle within the nucleus.
 Is not membrane bounded.
 Manufactures the components of ribosome

 The chromatin :
 Consists of DNA molecules bound with proteins called
histone. (Histone protein + DNA = Chromatin)
 Are loosely dispersed throughout the nucleus.
 During cell division, chromatin condense into a thread
like structure called chromosomes.
 The DNA in the nucleus also contains the instruction for
regulating the amount & types of proteins made by the
cell.
 
 Every aspect of cellular activity.
2. Mitochondria :
 Are responsible for aerobic cellular respiration.
 Contain their own DNA which directs ribosomes to produce proteins.
 Consists of an outer membrane and an inner infolded membrane.
 An outer membrane is smooth & holds numerous transport proteins.
 The individual folds of inner membrane are called cristae & are sites
of ATP synthesis.
 Fluid matrix is the inner fluid portion of mitochondria, where some of
reactions of aerobic respiration takes place.
 The number of mitochondria per cell varies from cell to cell.

3. Ribosomes:

 Are protein synthesizing organelles.

 Are made from RNA and protein.

 Each contains large and small sub units. Sub units are produced in
the nucleolus and assembled in the cytoplasm.

 Some are found freely the cytoplasm and others are bound to the
membrane of ER, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

 Is a network of membraneous tubules with in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells.
 Occurs in most eukaryotic cells, but absent in RBC & spermatozoa.
 Are two types; Rough & smooth ER.

A. Rough ER : Contains ribosomes attached to its surface.

 Responsible for manufacture & transport of proteins.
 Proteins then moved to Golgi body for additional
packaging & distribution.
 B. Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes on its surface.
 Important in the synthesis & storage of lipids and
steroids.
 It is also associated with carbohydrate metabolism &
detoxification.

5. Golgi body :
 Consists of a network of stacked membrane bounded sac.
 It receives proteins & lipids made in ER and store, package, & modify them.

 Modified molecules are distributed to other parts of the same cell,

carried to the plasma membrane to pass out of the cell by exocytosis
to be used else where.

 Some vesicles form lysosome.

6. Lysosomes :
 Are spherical single-membrane bounded organelles.
 Found in most animal cells.
 Have no specialized internal structures.
 Contain hydrolytic (digestive ) enzymes that break down cellular waste &
debris.
 Are referred to as sucide bags or sucide sacs of the cell.

ORGANELLES FOUND IN PLANT CELLS

1. Cell Wall

 Is tough, rigid layer that surrounds plant cell.

 Located outside cell membrane.

 Made up of cellulose fibers. Crisscross structure of these fibers give the cell
wall both strength& flexibility.
The gap between the fibers make the cell wall to be freely permeable.
2. Vacoule :
 Is a membrane enclosed fluid filled sac.
 Found mainly in plant cells.
  Contains different types of substances like inorganic salt, protein,
sugar/carbohydrate, fat, organic acid, & pigments.
 Contribute to the rigidity of the plant by developing hydrostatic (turgor)
pressure.
 Breaks down complex molecules
3. Plastids: Are found in plant cells & primitive single celled organisms.
 Are 3 major types. Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, & leucoplasts.

4. Chloroplast:
 Is found in plant & algal cells.
 Contains chlorophyll. Chll a, chll b & xanthophylls.
 Responsible for photosynthesis.
 Surrounded by double membrane like mitochondria. But,
 The inner membrane is not folded.
 Contain a fluid filled space called stroma, site of light independent reaction.

 Its inter membrane is organized in to interconnected flattened sacs called thylakoid.
 A stack of thylakoid is called grana (granum), where light dependent reaction occurs.

5. Peroxisomes:
Found near mitochondria or chloroplast of animal & plant cells.
Contain enzymes like catalase.

ACTIVITY 3 (5%)
 Explain the structure and function of:
 Microtubules
 Microfilaments
 Centrosomes

HOW HAVE BIOLOGISTS BEEN ABLE TO STUDY THE DIFFERENT ORGANELLES?

This has been possible because organelles can be separated on the basis of their mass & sizes.
 The technique used is called cell fractionation; the process of producing pure fraction of
cell components.
 The process involves:

 Disruption of tissues

 Lysis of the cell

 Centrifugation.
 Organelles settle down at different rate.
 Large organelles need low centrifuge speed to settle.
 Smaller organelles require much higher speed. Example : Ribosomes.
Cell fractionation involves the following steps:
1. The cell sample is stored in a suspension that is:
 Buffered: The neutral PH prevent damage of structure of proteins including
enzymes.
 Isotonic: Prevent osmotic water gain or loss by the organelles.
 Cool: Reduces the overall activity of enzymes.

2. Homogenization: Is the act of making something homogenous or uniform in

composition.
 Cells are homogenized in a blender & filtered to remove debris.
3. Ultra centrifugation : For separating organelles at a very high speed.