Structure of a Cell:

 Structural organizational unit of all living things, smallest unit of life

ALL CELLS HAVE…
 Plasma membrane
 Ribosomes
 Cytoplasm
 DNA/RNA

Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins from amino acids

 Some are mobile and some are membrane bound within the rough ER

Golgi Apparatus: Involved in synthesizing material such as proteins that are transported out of the cell
 Located near the nucleus and consists of layers of membranes
 Receives vesicles of immature proteins, vesicles fuse with membrane and release proteins into the Golgi

Vacuoles: Sacs used for storage digestion and waste removal

 One large vacuole in plant cells
 Animal cells have small and sometimes numerous vacuoles

Vesicle: Small organelle within a cell

 Has membrane and preforms varying functions
 Moves materials within a cell

Cytoskeleton: Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell

Microtubules: Part of the cytoskeleton that help support the cell

 Made up of proteins

Cytosol: Fluid that fills the cell

 Mostly water but also contains some floating molecules

Cytoplasm: General term that refers to cytosol and the organelles found within the plasma membrane
 Not within the nucleus
Plasma membrane: Thin semi-permeable membrane of lipids and proteins that helps keep cytoplasm in manages
which substances located outside the cell can come in or out
 Composed of a phospholipid bilayer reinforced by cholesterol and protein molecules, contain transport
holes which are proteins that help molecules and ions move in and out of the cell
 Lipids and Proteins
o Glycolipids help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms
o Proteins in cell membrane help give cell its shape, communicate with external environment and
transport molecules

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A tubular network that comprises the transport system of a cell
 Fused to the nuclear membrane and extends through the cytoplasm to cell membrane
 Rough ER  has ribosomes bound on surface
 Smooth ER  no ribosomes on surface

Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, involved in generating ATP and cell growth death
 Vary in size and quantity
 Contain their own DNA that is separate from that contained in the nucleus
 Functions:
o Production of cell energy (ATP)
o Cell signaling
o Cellular
differentiation
o Growth
regulation
 Site of aerobic
respiration
Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes:
 Any organism that has a cell or cells that are complex
 Membrane bound nucleus and organelles
o Linear DNA stored in nucleus
 Reproduce via mitosis
 Unicellular or multicellular
 Large cells
 Examples: protists, fungi, plants, and animals

Contain:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: contain ribosomes that act as sites for protein synthesis

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: contains enzymes that process lipids or fats for cell use

Golgi Apparatus: Responsible for modifying and sorting proteins from rough ER

Peroxisome: In cytoplasm, break down fatty acid chains

Mitochondria: Responsible for energy metabolism by generating ATP

Prokaryotes:
 Non-complex, single celled organism that does not contain a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
 No nucleus, DNA not bound in membrane
o DNA is circular shaped and floats freely within the cytoplasm of cell
 Most have tough polysaccharide cell wall
 Internal compartments are lacking or much less complex
 Reproduce via binary fission
 Single cell (unicellular)
 Smaller than eukaryotic cells
 Examples: bacteria and archaea
Animal Cells vs Plant Cells (Eukaryotic Cells)
Plant Cells
 Cell membrane surrounded by cell wall
o Is rigid and helps plant keep its form
o Has cell junction sites called plasmodesmata that connect one plant cell to another
 Have chloroplasts  site of photosynthesis
 Generate energy via photosynthesis (6CO2 + 6H20 sunlight  CH12O6 + 6O2)
o Can generate their own energy (glucose)
 Larger vacuoles that store water and nutrients

Animal Cells
 Smaller than plant cells
 Smaller vacuoles
 Desmosomes: Anchoring junction that bind adjacent cells
 Lysosomes: Help break down proteins, lipids, and carbs to be transported and reused by the cell
 Require glucose to generate energy in form of ATP through cellular respiration
o Glycolysis
o Krebs Cycle
o Electron Transport
o ATP Synthesis
 Have centrioles to organize microtubules
Transport Across the Cell Membrane:
Passive Transport:
 Movement of substances across a cell membrane without the input of energy
 Net movement is moving DOWN their concentration gradients
 Do NOT require ATP and are driven by the DIFFERENCE IN SOLUTE CONCENTRATION

DIFFUSION =particles transported from areas of higher concentration  lower

 Simple diffusion  Substances can cross the membrane directly without aid of transportation protein
o Small nonpolar molecules like O2, CO2, and uncharged lipids are not repelled by hydrophobic
interior of membrane

 Osmosis  Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane

o Net movement of water is down concentration gradient (move from area of higher water
concentration to lower or lower solute concentration to higher)
o Helps restore balance when solute cannot cross membrane
Hypertonic: When ECF has a higher solute concentration compared to the cytoplasm
 Fewer free water molecules surrounding the cell  net flow of water moves OUT of the
cell (shrinks cell)
Hypotonic: When ECF has a lower solute concentration compared to the cytoplasm
 More free water molecules, net flow of water will flow INTO the cell (causes swelling and
sometimes bursts the cell)
 Isotonic: When ECF has same solute concentration as the cytoplasm
 Water will move in and out of cell at equal rates

 Facilitated Diffusion: When proteins are used to transport substance DOWN their concentration
o Large, polar, or charged substances require shielding from the interior of the membrane and they
may use channel or carrier proteins to assist in their transport

Active Transport:
 Energy is used to move solutes in or out of the cell
 Substances are pumped AGAINST their concentration gradients from low to high concentration

 Primary Transport: Pumping of solutes by a carrier protein is directly coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP
o The binding of a phosphate group causes conformational change in protein allowing it to transport
solutes across the membrane

 Secondary Transport: Relies on ATP to generate an electrochemical gradient and the gradient directly
drives the active transport of a different solute
o As one solute moves down its gradient, another is pumped up its gradient

 Endocytosis and exocytosis are types of active transport that employ vesicles to import/export substance
o Require ATP but do not necessarily move solutes up their concentration gradients

Exocytosis: cellular products/wastes are transported via vesicles to cell membrane where the vesicle
fuses and releases its contents into the extracellular environment
 How some membrane components such as glycoproteins and glycolipids become
incorporated into cell membrane

Endocytosis: Involves the ingestion of fluid, large particles, or target molecules
  During
this
process
the cell

membrane folds inward, engulfing the material and pinching off into a vesicle
 Examples:
o Sodium-potassium pump
o Ca ions moving from cardiac muscles
o Glucose moving in or out of cell

The Cell Cycle

 Process by which a cell reproduces which involves cell growth, the duplication of genetic material and cell
division

1. Interphase
 Longest stage where most cells spend 90% of their lifespan
 Where cells take in nutrients, manufacture proteins/other substance, expands in size, and conducts its
special functions.
 Begin preparations for cell division

3 Main Phases:
 a) G1 Phase:
o First phase in the life of a newborn cell
o Cell grows and prepares to replicate its DNA
G0 Phase: many cells that start differentiating shortly after entering G1 exit cell cycle to enter this resting state
b) S Phase:
o DNA is copied (replicated) which requires synthesis
of new DNA
o At end of S phase replicated DNA helices remain
attached as sister chromatics held together at the
centromere
c) G2 Phase:
o Begins after the S phase and before start of division
o Checks are made to ensure that conditions are suitable
for cell division

2. Cell Division:
 Mitosis
o Nuclear division involving separation of
chromosomes
 Cytokinesis
o Cytoplasmic division creating 2 daughter cells

Mitosis
 Process in eukaryotes that generates 2 genetically identical daughter
cells from one parent cell involving the even distribution of replicated DNA into new daughter cells
 Main goal is to separate sister chromatids and distribute one of each chromosome into each of the
daughter cells

4 Main Phases (PMAT):

1. Prophase:
 Chromosomes condense
 Nuclear envelope breaks down
 Cell prepares for segregation of chromosomes
 2. Metaphase
 Chromosomes align at midline of cell
 Functions to facilitate equal distribution of chromosomes to each end of the cell
3. Anaphase
 Sister chromatids separate and become individual chromosomes
 New chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell
4. Telophase
 Mitotic spindle breaks down and nuclear envelope forms around the 2 new sets of chromosomes at
each end of the cell
 Chromosomes decondense as each new daughter cell begins G1 phase

**STILL MITOSIS***
Prophase:
 Early Prophase:
o Chromatin condenses to produce highly compact chromosomes
o Centrosomes begin to move towards opposite ends of the cell
o Mitotic spindle begins to form from microtubules
 Are anchored to a centrosome at the 2 ends of the cell
 Late Prophase:
o Nuclear envelope disassembles and the replicated chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle
o Spindle will guide sister chromatids to the metaphase plate and later to opposite ends of cell
Metaphase:
 Mitotic spindle aligns the replicated chromosomes to
the center of the cell
 Function to align chromosomes to facilitate equal
distribution of chromosomes on each end of cell

Anaphase:
 Sister chromatids are separated and bulled to opposite ends of the cell
by progressive shortening of the spindle microtubules
o Results in equal separation of replicated genetic information
 Once separated each chromatid is considered a new chromosome

Telophase:
 Begins when a complete set of chromosomes arrive at a spindle pole
 Mitotic spindle breaks down
  Nuclear envelope begins to form around the 2 new sets of
chromosomes at each end of the cell
 Chromosomes begin to unfold and cytokinesis begins

Cytokinesis
 Process of dividing the parents cell cytoplasm to produce 2 new
daughter cells
 In animal cells, actin microfilaments form at the metaphase
plate.
o As the actin filaments contract, they draw the plasma
membrane in until the original cytoplasm is pinched into
two new cells, the daughter cells.

Result
 2 daughter cells both with 46 chromosomes (diploid) 2 strands
of DNA, and 2 homologous pairs

Meiosis:
 Function is to generate haploid cells from a diploid
parent cell by splitting up every homologous pair and
sorting its members into different gametes
 In sexual reproduction, gametes of the opposite
type (egg and sperm) fuse during fertilization to
produce a zygote.
o Each gamete is haploid (n): it contains
half the diploid set of chromosomes (2n).
 Haploid = 23 chromosomes
 Diploid = 46 chromosomes
 The zygote formed by the two haploid gametes
contains one paternal homologue and one
maternal homologue for each pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis I:

 Sorts each member of a homologues

pair into 2 daughter cells reducing the
chromosome sets from 2n to n
 Paternal and maternal partners of
each homologous chromosome pair
align themselves next to each other
during prophase of meiosis I
(prophase I).
 A tetrad consists of one replicated
maternal chromosome aligned
parallel to its matching replicated
paternal chromosomes, for a total of
four chromatids.
Crossing Over (during prophase I)
DNA segments are swapped between
non-sister chromatids
 Crossing-over: physical exchange of chromosomal segments between non-sister-chromatids in paired-
off paternal and maternal homologues.
 Crossing-over exchanges alleles between the paternal and maternal chromatids, creating new groupings
of alleles through the exchange of DNA segments in a process known as genetic recombination.
Independent assortment:
 The random distribution of the different homologous chromosome pairs into daughter cells during meiosis I.
• Independent assortment of chromosomes produces gametes that are different from the parent and from
each other.
• The random events in meiosis, and the random fertilization of a certain egg by a particular sperm,
contribute to the genetic uniqueness of offspring.
• Generates diversity

Meiosis I continues through prophase I, into metaphase I, anaphase, and telophase I

Meiosis II
 Separates sister chromatids in each cell produced by meiosis I into 2 different daughter cells

 The two haploid cells produced by meiosis I give rise to a total of four haploid cells.

o The reduction in chromosome numbers achieved through meiosis I offsets the combining of
chromosomes when gametes fuse during fertilization.
Macromolecules:
 Large and complex molecules produced by anabolic metabolism that play a role in cell structure and function
 Anabolic Reaction: Builds large and complex molecules (macromolecules)
o Requires energy
  Catabolic Reaction: Breaks down large molecules into smaller and more simple molecules
o Releases energy
 Endothermic Reaction: Chemical reactions that ABSORB heat
 Exothermic Reaction: Chemical reactions that RELEASE heat  gain ATP
 Monomer: small molecule, single compound that forms chemical bonds with other monomers to create a
polymer
 Polymer: compound of large molecules formed by repeating monomers
o Carbs, proteins, and nucleic acid are groups of macromolecules that are polymers

4 Basic Organic Macromolecules:

 Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids, Proteins, and Lipids

1. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides)  sugar and starches broken down into glucose, fructose, galactose
 Primary source of energy as broken down into glucose and sugars  grouped together into the
monosaccharides
o Oxidation of carbs that provide cells with most of their energy
o Involved in metabolic energy cycles of photosynthesis and respiration
o Stored via amylose, amylopectin, glucagon
 Structural function: cellulose and chitin
 Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH20)

2. Nucleic Acids: Long molecules made from nucleotides, store information and energy
 Broken down by enzymes via hydrolysis (water broken down into hydrogen cations and hydroxide
anion) to produce strings of RNA and DNA
 DNA/RNA (oligonucleotides) are broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units called
nucleosides
o Can be digested by cells since sugar is divided from nitrogenous base  leads to
formation of the 5 types of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and substances involved in
synthesis of DNA/RNA
3. Proteins: Macromolecules made from amino acids and joined together by peptides
 Peptides made from condensation reaction (loss of water when 2 molecules join)
o Compound of 2 or more amino acids
  Monomer = amino acids (amino group + carboxylic acid
o Amino acid side chain determines properties of a protein
 Function as transport carriers or signal transfer
 Keratin and collagen (hydrophobic), found in structural protein)
 Globular proteins are hydrophilic (hemoglobin, antibodies, and enzymes)

Amino Acids
 Building blocks of protein, 20 types of amino acids
 Involved in catabolic reaction
 Monomer of protein
Enzymes:
 Class of protein that catalyze biochemical reactions but are not consumed in the reaction
 Highly selective, substrate must match with enzymes active site (key and lock)
 Don’t start reactions that wouldn’t have already started by themselves but make the reactions happen
faster and more after

4. Lipids: Fatty acids and derivatives (phospholipids, fats, steroids, glycerides)

 Soluble in nonpolar solvents but hydrophobic (do not bond well with water)
 Many carbon-hydrogen bons
 Major role in energy storage and structural functions
Fatty Acids (glycerol)
 Chains with reduced carbon at one end and a carboxylic acid group on the other
 Fats are triglycerides made of long chains of fatty acids bound to glycerol

DNA and RNA

 Nucleosides, nucleotides, DNA/RMA
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
 A nucleic acid located in the nucleus of a cell (also in the mitochondria)
 Contain coded instruction for the body to produce proteins, replicate to pass on information
 Double helix consisting of nucleotides that consist of five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
 DNA make up genes which are single units of genetic information (chromosomes consist of genes)
o DNA built by nucleotides

Nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
o Adenine (A)  Thymine (T)
o Cytosine (C)  Guanine (G)
o The order of bases creates diversity in people
o When combined with sugar these can all become nucleosides

DNA/RN bases are classified as purines and pyrimidines

o Purine Base: Adenine (A) and Guanine)
 6-sided single ring shape
o Pyrimidines: Thymine(T) and Cytosine (C), Uracil in RNA
 2 rings, one has 5 sides and the other has 6
Hydrogen Bonds: Connect a Purine to a Pyrimidine (A-T) and (C-G).

o Non-covalent, weak.
o RNA: Uracil replaces Thymine

Codon: A group of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA used to synthesize amino acids

o Synthesized from RNA during TRANSLATION

o 64 codons but 20 amino acids
o Occurs in groups of 3 coded 5’ 3’

DNA Replication:
 Pairs of chromosomes are composed of DNA, when replication starts, they unwind
 Occurs in nucleus of EUKARYOTES and cytoplasm of PROKARYOTES

CONTROLLED BY ENZYMES
 Helicase: deforming of hydrogen bonds between bases, unwinding the strands of DNA
o Splitting starts at A-T bases as there are only 2 hydrogen bonds then C-G which has 3
o Origin of Replication = where splitting starts
o Replication Fork = portion of DNA that is unwound to be replication
o DNA Primase: Generates RNA Primer. Act as a template for starting point of DNA Replication
 mRNA: carries copy of strand of DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm (1st STEP OF PROTEIN
BUILDING)
 Transcription: process where the RNA polymerase copies DNA into RNA
o It copies the DNA onto itself base by base in complementary manner (except uracil replaces
thymine)
o DNA unwinds itself to serve as a template while RNA is being assembled
o DNA copied to RNA
 Translation: Process where ribosomes use the transcribed RNA from the mRNA to put together the
needed protein
o tRNA brings amino acid to ribosomes where they link to proteins and rRNA reads the codes
TERMS TO KNOW:
DNA Polymerase: Synthesize new DNA molecules by adding nucleotides to leading and lagging DNA strands
in 5'3' direction
Topoisomerase: Prevents supercoiling
DNA Ligase: Joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides
Okazaki Fragment: Short, newly synthesized DNA fragments
Single Strand Binding Protein: Stabilize structure during replication
Leading Strand: Replicated continuously in the 3' to 5' direction
Lagging Strand: Replicated discontinuously in Okazaki fragments after initially attaching to RNA

DNA: ATCG
(Awesome, Talented,
Cool, Girl)

RNA: AUCG
(Awesome,
Unhinged, , Cool,
Girl)

Mendel’s Laws
 1. Law of Segregation:
 States that there are 2 alleles and half of the total number of alleles are contributed by EACH
parent organism
2. Law of Independent Assortment:
 States that traits are passed on randomly and NOT influenced by other traits
 Exception to this is linked traits
3. Law of Dominance:
 States that when two different are present in a pair the DOMINANT one is expressed

Allele: Variation of a gene, known as a trait

 Determines the manifestation of a gene resulting in a specific physical appearance such as eye color or
Hight
 Locus: location of a gene or alleles

Genotype: All genes of an individual including genes that may not be expressed such as recessive genes
 Does not show parents phenotypes
 Doesn’t necessarily include information about the organisms’ physical characteristics

Phenotype: Physical, visual manifestations of a gene

 Determined by basic genetic information and how genes have been affected by their environment

Dominant Trait (A): Only requires one gene of a gene pair to expressed in a phenotype
Recessive Trait (a): Requires both genes to be expressed in phenotype

Heterozygous (Aa): 2 different alleles of a gene

Homozygous (AA/aa): 2 identical alleles of a gene

Biological Kingdoms:
Producer vs. Consumer + Decomposer
 Producer: photosynthesizing organisms that convert light energy to chemical energy stored in sugar and
other complex molecules
o AUTOTROPHS: does NOT eat other organisms
 Photoautotroph = light energy source
 Chemoautotroph = inorganic chemical energy source
 Consumer: Organisms that acquire their energy in chemical form by eating plants or eating animals that
ate plans
o HETEROTROPHS: do EAT other organisms
 Photoheterotroph = light energy source
 Chemoheterotroph = organic chemic energy source
 Decomposer: A specific kind of consumer that ABSORBS nutrients from NONLIVING material such
as corpses, fallen plant material, and wastes of living organisms  converts then into INORGANIC
FORM for energy
o Chemoautotroph

Hierarchy of Life:

Kingdom:
1. Archaebacteria:
 Prokaryote, single celled
 Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
2. Eubacteria:
 Prokaryote, single celled
 Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
3. Protista:
Eukaryote: single AND multi-celled

 Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
4. Fungi:
 Eukaryote, most multi-celled but some are single celled
 Includes decomposers
5. Plantae:
 Eukaryote, multi-celled
 Includes producers
6. Animalia:
 Eukaryote, multi-celled
 Includes consumers

States of Matter:
Matter  Substances that have mass and occupy space (or volume)
  Different states of matter are caused by differences in the distances and angles between molecules or
atoms
 This results in a difference in the energy that binds them

1. Solid:
 Fixed volume and shape
 Density = High
 Molecular Motion = Vibrate around
fixed position
o Molecules are packed tight in an
orderly pattern
 Has strong bonds

2. Liquid:
 Fixed volume but indefinite shape
o Volume remains constant but it
assumes shape of container
 Density = High
o Lower density in solid state (ice)
 Molecular Motion = Move past each
other freely
o Molecules are less ordered and less tightly packed compared to solids
 Have weak bonds but not weak enough to readily break

3. Gas:
 Unfixed volume and shape
o Fits volume and shape of container (high compressibility)
 Density = Low
 Molecular Motion = Very free motion
o Molecules are rapidly moving and spread far apart
Changes in States of Matter:
Melting: Solid  Liquid

Freezing: Liquid  Solid

Vaporization: Liquid  Gas

Condensation: Gas  Liquid

o When temperature decreases in gas the molecules move SLOWER
o Decreased motion enables intermolecular cohesive forces to pull molecules closer together
o Caused by increase in pressure on exerted gas resulting in increased volume (reducing distance between
particles)

Sublimation: Solid  Gas

Deposition: Gas  Solid

Evaporation: Liquid  Gas

o Occurs at temperature below boiling point
o At high temperatures liquid molecules move rapidly increasing their number with enough energy to
break form
o RATE of evaporation is higher when more of the surface area of the liquid is exposed and is lower with
increased atmospheric pressure

Boiling: The transition of LIQUID to GAS when a substance has acquired enough thermal energy.

Critical Point: The temperature at which LIQUID and GAS phases have same density.

Phase Diagram: A graph of physical states of a substance under varying temperature and pressure.

Triple Point: The temperature and pressure at which all 3 phases of a pure substance coexists
Solubility:
 Upper limit to the mass that can be dissolved in a liter of water
 Depends on TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE

Saturated Solution: Solution that contains the maximum possible concentration of a solute
 Solid: increases of temperature increases solubility of solid
o Also increases solubility of a solid in water
 Gas: increase in temperature decreases solubility of a gas
o Also decreases solubility of a gas in water
o increase in pressure increases solubility

Solubility in Molecular Compounds

 The more hydrogen bonds, the higher the solubility
 The more carbon and hydrogen ions, the lower the solubility

pH Scale (ACID + BASE = SALT (hydrolysis)

 potential of hydrogen, measurement of the concentration of hydrogen in a substance in terms of the number
of moles of H+ per liter on a 0-14 scale
(BTW blood pH =~ 7.35)

 pH > 7  Base
o Yields hydroxide ions (OH-)  more hydroxide ions = higher the bease
 pH = 7  Neutral
o Water
 pH < 7  Acid
o Yield hydrogen ions (H+)

Base: Usually in an aqueous solution, after described as alkaline

 Bitter taste
 Soapy slippery texture
 Capacity to restore blue color of litmus paper which was red prior from acids
 Ability to produce salts in reaction with acids
  Yield hydroxide ions (OH-)

Acid:  Often characterized by ability to ionize H+ atoms

 Tendency to dissociate from parent molecules and take on electrical charge
 Carboxylic acids are characterized by ionization but of the O atoms
 They have sour taste
 Color litmus paper red
 Produce gaseous H2 in reaction with some metals
 Produce salt precipitates in reaction with bases
 Most inorganic acids are easily soluble in water and have high boiling potions

Strong vs Weak Reflection of the degree to which its atom ionizes in solution, based on reactivity
 Strong Acid or Base
o Are strong because they tend to form and break bonds quickly and most of their atoms ionize in
the process
o Example: if all atoms in an acid ionize the acid is strong
 Weak Acid or Base
o Example: if few atoms ionize the acid is weak

Characteristics Properties of Substances

 Intensive Properties  Do NOT depend on the amount of matter or quantity of a sample
o Will not change if the sample size is increased or decreased
o Include color, hardness, melting/boiling point, density, ductility, malleability, specific heat,
temperature, concentration, and magnetization
 Extensive Properties: DO depend on the amount of matter or quantity in a sample
o Do change if sample size increases or decreases
o Include volume, mass, weight, energy, entropy, number of moles, and electrical charged

Density: Measure of the amount of mass per volume unit

 M (mass) / V (volume)
Mass: Measure of the amount of substance in an object
Volume: Measure of the amount of space occupied
Weight: Measure of gravitational pull of Earth on an object
Specific Gravity: Measure of the ratio of a substance’s density compared to density of water
Specific Heat Capacity: Heat capacity per unit mass

Scientific Method:
1. Identify the problem
2. Ask Questions (by conducting research)
3. Develop Hypothesis (IF/THEN statement)
4. Conduct Experiment
5. Analyze Results
6. Form a Conclusion

Independent variable
 The thing you are testing
 "If" statement of the hypothesis
 Cause

Dependent Variable
 The thing you are measuring
 "Then" statement of the hypothesis
 Effect

Control Variable
 Scientific Constant
 Remains unchanged throughout the experiment

Successful Experiment: Must be able to replicate data for a successful experiment and must have a large sample
Chemistry:
Atoms consist of a nucleus and electrons
 Nucleus contains protons (+) and neutrons (no
charge)
o Nucleus is positively charged because of
the presence of protons
 Electrons (-)
o Orbit the nucleus

Proton: Positively charged atomic particle

 Determines atomic number

Neutron: Atomic particle with no charge

 Determines isotope

Molecules: Atoms bonded together by covalent bonds

 Neutral = Equal number of proteins and electrons
 Ion = Unequal number of protons and electrons
o Ion: atom with a +/- charge

Isotope: Atoms of the same ELEMENT that have DIFFERENT MASS

Covalent Bond: Chemical bond formed by that SHARING of electrons between 2 non-metal elements
 Non-Polar Bond:
o Electrons are shared equally between elements
 Polar Bond
o Electrons are shared unequally between elements resulting in a +/- charge
 Cations (+ ion): an atom LOSES an electrons
 Usually metals (1A-3A)
 Anions (- ion): an atom GAINS an electron
  Usually nonmetals (5A-7A)

Ionic Bond: 2 oppositely charged elements

 FYI: conduct electricity and are soluble in water

Group Number: Vertical Row

 The number of the group refers to how many valence electrons are in an elements outer shell
o Ex: Carbon (C) is in group 4A  has 4
valence electrons  needs 4 more to satisfy
octet rule
Period Number: Horizontal Row
 The number of the period refers to the number of
valences shells the element has
o Ex: Carbon (C) is in group 4A  has 1 valence shell

Octet Rule:
 Main group elements want 8 valence electrons when forming molecules or ions
 Both elements want a full valence shell, so they share electrons equally/unequally to do so
 Valence Electron: outer most valence shell

Electronegativity:
Measure if how capable an atom is of attracting a pair of bonding electron
 Low electronegative difference between 2 atoms  polar covalent bond
 No electronegative difference between 2 atoms  non-polar covalent bond
 High electronegative difference between 2 atoms  ionic bond

High Electronegativity: Greater ability to attract electrons (takes electrons)

 Top right of periodic table
 Non-metal and metalloids
 Low chemical reactivity  these groups of more electrons in valence shell so they don’t really need it

Low Electronegativity: Lower ability to attract electrons (gives up electrons)

 Top left of periodic table
  Metals
 High chemical reactivity  these groups of less electrons in valence shell so they really want to bond
with other elements

Chemical Reactions
Rate
 Determined by how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact
 Influences by temperature and various properties like shape of reacting materials
 Catalysts: INCREASE reaction
 Inhibitors: DECREASE reaction
THERE NEEDS TO BE EQUAL NUMBER OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS WHEN BALANCING
EQUATION