HORTICULTURE 118

Exercise 2

COMPOSTING

LAPITAN, Patrick Dave

TARDECILLA, Stanlee Theodore
VILLEGAS, Caila
WAPANIO, Marielle Joy

Second Semester 2018-2019

May 20, 2019
 INTRODUCTION

Composting is a natural way of recycling or degrading of organic waste including food waste, manure,
leaves, etc. turning it into valuable and nutrient-full organic fertilizer. Composting is an example of a natural
biological process that is carried out under controlled aerobic condition thus, requires oxygen. In the process,
variety of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi break down the organic materials into simpler substances.
The effectiveness of the composting depends on various factors namely: oxygen, temperature, moisture, size of
the organic matter and the size and activity of microorganisms.
The composting process has four phases:
1) Latent phase – Colonization of microorganisms
2) Growth phase – Increase in temperature to mesophilic level
3) Thermophilic phase – Increase of temperature to the highest level
4) Maturation phase – Decrease of temperature to mesophilic level and subsequently to ambient level
The resulting product of a composting system is humus which is the natural form of the decayed organic
materials having no distinctive trace of the plants, microorganisms or animals. The finished compost will be
classified as 100% organic fertilizer. It improves soil porosity, drainage, aeration, water holding capacity and
reduces compaction. Compost can be use in agriculture, horticulture and landscaping. It can be applied as well
for erosion control and landfill cover.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this exercise the students should be able to demonstrate the various composting methods,
evaluate their corresponding processes and products, and determine the effects of applying compost to crop
growth.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
I. COMPOSTING METHODS
The activity was conducted on August 7, 2019 in the Orchid Nursery of the University of the Philippines
– Los Baños. Three composting methods were prepared and these are Hot composting, IBS Rapid composting,
and Vermicomposting. The materials used for this activity were dried farm animal manure, dried plant material,
fresh plant material (banana stalk, crop residues), Trichoderma, earthworm (African night crawler), compost bins,
plastic cover, net, binder clip, PVC pipes, hand trowels, knives, and wooden chopping board. For the collection
of data, the students used thermometer, weighing scale, and soil test kit.
The feedstock was composed of (3 parts brown and 1 part green) which includes 1 part chopped dried
plant material, 2 parts dried animal manure, and 1 part chopped fresh plant material. The plant materials were
chopped and mixed using a mixer and then weighed. The three compost should have a recommended CN ratio of
30:1. After mixing all the materials, it was placed in a composting bin (plastic drum), and water is applied. Hot
composting method was covered with plastic cover after all the raw materials were mixed in the bin. For the IBS
Rapid composting method there was an additional 1 pack of Trichoderma before it was covered with plastic and
inserted with 3 PVC pipes and clipped to secure each sides of the bin while african night crawler were added to
vermicomposting and covered with a net.
The three composting methods were evaluated based on their corresponding processes and products and
its effect on the growth and development of radish. The observation period of this activity lasted for two months
and data on initial temperature, physical characters (odor, color, size of the particles), and initial weight of all
composts were recorded. After one month of observation, vermicompost was terminated and data for its final
weight and physical characters observed were recorded. Hot composting and IBS rapid composting were extended
for another month.

Raw materials, weighing, mixing, and watering of compost

II. FIELD APPLICATION OF COMPOSTS
Seeds were sown in seedling trays to germinate and prepare for transplanting. Shallow holes were dig per
plug for seeds should not be planted too deep in the soil. After a week, seeds that were sown in seedling trays
were transplanted in the plot. Treatments imposed on the field are the following: 1control, 2with vermicompost,
and 3with chicken manure. The land was plowed using a manual tractor and for each treatment a plot having a
size of 1 m by 1 m with 0.5 spacing were designated for the transplants. Each plot has 9 transplanted seedlings of
radish. All transplanted seedlings were covered with banana stalk. Application of vermicompost and chicken
manure is done through basal application while no compost was added for the plot of control. Everyday watering
of seedlings was done and weeds that surrounds each plot were removed. Furthermore, maintenance of each plots
and observation for the presence of pests were also done. After the observation period of 2-3 months, radishes in
the three plots were harvested and gathered data on number of leaves, leaf area (L*W) *0.75, leaf color, fresh
weight, and marketable fresh weight.

The three plots in the first row was planted with radish and applied with compost treatments
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I. COMPOSTING METHODS
Temperature affects the composting process. It involves the mesophilic and thermophilic temperature
ranges. The higher the temperature the more it destroys pathogens in the compost where turning and aeration
regulates temperature. The three composts temperature were recorded every week of Monday and Thursday. It is
expected to increase after 24 hours. However, increased in temperatures were not observed. The reason and
problems encountered will be discussed below.

A temperature rise is expected in hot composting method. This high temperature will effectively kill the
weeds and seeds present in the heap. Factors that may contribute to the almost constant low temperature is the
recommended size of the bin. According to Compost Education Center (2015), the hot compost pile should not
be lower than one cubic meter in order to attain and maintain the temperature for hot composting (55 ℃). The
first six to ten inches from the side of the container functions as insulator and the main decomposition activity
occurs at the center of the pile. It is important to monitor the temperature of the pile at least once a day to check
if it is heating up or not rising beyond 55 ℃. Once the pile reaches 55 ℃, then it is time for turning.

IBS Rapid composting method usually heats up within 24-48 hours from set-up. The temperature observed
is much lower than the theoretical which is 50 ℃ or higher. This anomaly can be caused by too much moisture
resulting to the compaction of the pile and maintained close temperature observations. Another factor is the
activator fungus Trichoderma. It is possible that the fungus was not mixed thoroughly in the set-up thus, slower
decomposition activity (FAO, 2003).
 Vermicomposting method was terminated after a month. The temperature observed in the vermicompost
set-up deviates from 25 - 28 ℃, which is within the recommended temperature range of FAO. The vermicompost
should have the temperature maintained between 20 to 27 ℃ because at higher temperature, the earthworms
aestivate or spend a dry period and at lower temperature, the worms tend to hibernate (FAO, 2003). Highest
productivity of the worms is attained within the recommended temperature range (Worm Composting
Headquarters, 2019). Among the three set-up, vermicompost was once applied with water because the upper layer
was observed to be dry as compared to the other two methods which has been applied with water and turned every
once a week.

*did not water

Figure 4 shows that after a decreased in temperature (Week 2 to Week 4) it increases from Week 4 for all
composts. The reason for this was in this week the composts did not get any water. It can also be seen from the
line starting at Week 6 (hot and IBS rapid composting). Thus, whenever the composts are left unwater it increased
in temperature. It was very obvious in the vermicomposting method. As have said earlier, vermicomposting
method was the first one to terminate after 1 month and during the 4 th week of data gathering the only thing that
was done is to record its temperature. Moreover, excessive application of water causes the compost pile in all
compost to decrease its temperature.
 Three thermometers were used to record temperature in different areas of the compost pile

Table 1. Physical characteristics of compost as influenced by different composting method.

Physical Characters

Composting Method Initial Final

Odor Color Particle Odor Color Particle

size/aggregate size/aggregate

Hot Composting foul Brown and larger size of odorless Light Smaller particles
odor green plant matter brown (soil-like)
(dried & fresh)

IBS Hot Composting foul Brown and larger size of odorless Light Smaller particles
odor green plant matter brown (soil-like)
(dried & fresh)

Vermicomposting foul Brown and larger size of odorless black Smaller particles
odor green plant matter (soil-like)
(dried & fresh)

The physical characteristics of the three composting method are affected by the activity of the organisms.
The initial and final physical characteristics of these components had similarities in terms of odor, color and
particle size. However, the color of the final product of vermicomposting was different to hot and IBS rapid
composting. This is because vermicomposting contains African night crawler. The organism, African night
crawler ingest the planting material in the compost pile and excrete “casts”. The casts of the ANC will then be
converted into stable soil aggregates by the action of gums that result from microbial digestion of their organic
compounds (Waksman and Martin, 1939), or by the binding effect of fungal hyphae (Parle, 1963) and transformed
it as feces that causes it to change the compost’s color to black.
Table 3. Chemical composition of compost as influenced by different composting method.

Hot Composting IBS Hot Composting Vermicomposting

pH 5.0 5.4 6.0

N Medium Medium High

P Low Low Low

K Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient

According to Chen et al. (2011), the soil pH affects the growth and activities of microorganisms. It also
determines the fate of nitrogen compounds. Moreover, the optimal pH range for bacteria is 6.0 to 7.5 and for fungi
5.5 to 8.0. At pH more than 7.5, there will be a loss of gaseous ammonia. The finished compost for hot composting
generally has a pH within a range of 6.5 to 7.5. The N, P and K in a mature compost have varying nutrient release
characteristic and plant availability The nutrient percentage contained in a compost are essential as their ratios
are in relationship to each other. This is because the ratio of nutrients can affect nutrient uptake and plant growth.
In IBS rapid composting method, the mature compost generally has a neutral to alkaline pH. It has a low
level of N, P and K, as compared to chemical fertilizer. (Cuevas, 1991).
On the other hand, the vermicomposting has an acceptable pH range of 5.5 to 8.5, which is suitable for
earthworms and microorganisms’ activity. However, the optimum pH is neutral or near neutral. During
vermicomposting the pH values of the feed substrate undergoes considerable changes. An initial phase
characterized by a low pH is often observed during vermicomposting of feed substrate. This is due to the
formation of carbon dioxide and volatile fatty acids in initial. With the subsequent evolution of CO2 and
utilization of volatile fatty acids, the pH begins to rise as the process progresses (Kaushik and Garg 2004).
However, since chicken manure is highly alkaline, it produces more amount of heat and may affect the
earthworms. Hence, amendment materials such as plant litter are needed to stimulate microbial activity which
result to the enrichment of essential nutrients (Gupta et al, 2016). Blake and Hess (2001) observed that the typical
pH of chicken manure ranges from 9-10. The NH₃ exists in equilibrium with NH₄ at pH 9-10. At pH 7.2 or below,
most of NH₃ changes to NH₄, thus reducing the pH of the feed below 7.2 can decrease the amount of NH₃.
In 1971, Graff reported that the excreta of the earthworms had more nitrogen considerably in casts than
in surrounding soil. Furthermore, Curry et al. (1995) observed that the earthworms would contribute an addition
of 3.4-4.1 g of mineral nitrogen to the soil through excretion, mucus production and soil ingestion. According to
Opperman et al. (1987), a net mineralization of nitrogen occurred due to earthworms’ activity, whereas a net loss
of mineral nitrogen was observed on exclusion of earthworms. Bhatnagar and Palta (1996) revealed that about
6% more N was made available to plants by worm excreta.
Coleman et al. (1983) observed that the uptake of bacteria and fungi followed by earthworms’ secretion
and decomposition might result to the release of phosphorus compounds that can be cycled through plants and
back again to the soil biota. In addition, Mansell et al. (1981) reported the increase of short term plant availability
of phosphorus derived from plant litter by 2 or 3 folds by the earthworm. In 1996, Bhatnagar and Palta reported
that 15-30% more P was made available to plants by worm activity.
 In 1992, Jambhekar observed considerable increase in available potassium than the initial and control
treatments in different plant residues and agricultural waste.
Carbon and Nitrogen
Carbon is a source of energy for microbe growth. In aerobic decomposition, part of the carbon is released
as CO2 while the rest is combined with nitrogen in the bodies of microorganisms. As a result, the carbon content
of a compost pile is continuously decreasing. Nitrogen is used for the synthesis of cellular material, amino acids,
and proteins and is continuously recycled through the microbe’s bodies. Any nitrogen that is incorporated into
the cells becomes available again when the microorganism dies. (Aggie Horticulture, 2009)
The high nitrogen source, such as grass clippings or other plant wastes, animal manures, food scraps or
other high nitrogen materials can speed up the decomposition process and increase the nitrogen content of the end
product making it more suitable for use as a soil amendment. The high nitrogen component must be carefully
controlled because the addition of too much nitrogen can result in the formation of ammonia, creating an odor
problem. The rapid decomposition also uses up oxygen, causing further problems as the aerobic microorganisms
are replaced by anaerobic ones. (Aggie Horticulture, 2009)
A C/N ratio of 25-30:1 is optimum for efficient composting. It is important when blending raw materials
to create a mixture that will approximate this ideal and provide the proper characteristics for aerobic composting.
A higher C/N ratio will result in a slower rate of decomposition. A lower ratio results in excess nitrogen loss and
possible odors if the mix is not turned often. (Aggie Horticulture, 2009).

If the C/N ratio is too low because the raw material is rich in nitrogen, the carbon will be the limiting
nutrient. If enough carbon is not available to provide energy for the microbes to incorporate nitrogen compounds
into their cells, unstable ammonia will form. In that case, the microbes will “eat” all the carbon that’s there, but
the excess nitrogen will be eliminated as ammonia. (National Resources Conservation Service, 2007)

Table 4. Weight of Compost as influenced by different composting method.

Weight (kg)
Composting
Method Initial Final Undecomposed
material (after sieving)

Hot Composting 45 7.2 4.15

IBS Rapid 45 10 2.9

Composting

Vermicomposting 45 13.5 0.2

Among the three composting method, vermicompost had the lowest amount of undecomposed material
equivalent to 0.4% followed by IBS rapid compost and hot composting with 6.6% and 9%, respectively. In
addition, vermicompost also had the highest percent final weight of 30% as compared to IBS rapid composting
and hot composting method with 22% and 16%, respectively. The african night crawler is very efficient in
composting the organic materials. It can be said that the environment of the vermicompost set-up is favorable to
the worms. Another factor to mention for all the methods is the scattering of the soil during the transfer and
filtering of the compost. These scattered compost was not included in the final weight of the three methods.
The aerobic composting mainly involves the decomposition of organic materials by different
microorganisms present in the pile. The active composting generates heat and large amount of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water vapor are released in the atmosphere. This CO2 and vapor losses can amount more than half of
the weight of the materials thus, reducing the final mass of the product. The presence of various organisms like
mites, ants, etc., which act the physical decomposers, contributed as well in the reduction of the final weigh
through digestion. These organisms directly feed on the organic materials in the compost (Young, Rekha and
Arun, 2005).

Table 5. Days to maturity of compost as influenced by different composting method.

Composting Method Days to Mature

Hot Composting 60

IBS Rapid Composting 60

Vermicomposting 30

The difference on days to maturity of the three composting methods depends on the different factors such
as the size of the material. During the mixing, it can be that the substances were not well mixed thus, having
smaller pieces in one of the set up. The smaller the organic materials, the greater the surface area for
microorganisms, the faster they can do their work. Another factor that contributed to the days to mature is the
turning. Since composting is an aerobic process, it requires oxygen. Proper turning gives and distributes right
amount of oxygen to the heap, supplying it to the microorganisms. In small scale basis, a compost matures for a
week while it took a month for large scale compost production.
Compost from hot composting method is usually ready after 14-21 days (Deep Green Permaculture, 2010).
IBS rapid composting involves the addition of the fungus Trichoderma sp. to the heap. The fungus is a good
cellulose decomposer (FAO, 2003). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the duration of
decomposition is 21-45 days. In vermicomposting, the addition of earthworms is done to decompose the organic
materials. The compost is ready for about a month having black, granular appearance (FAO, 2003).

II. FIELD APPLICATION OF COMPOSTS

Radish is a popular vegetable for its health benefits. It requires adequate amount of fertilizer for the growth
of its tuber because excess and continuous use of fertilizer possesses drain off into adjacent waterways that
threatens the soil and health of humans (Imthiyas, M&Seran, T.,2017). In organic farming, the use of compost is
very effective as an amendment to retain water holding capacity and nutrients in the soil. Figure 1 shows that the
total leaf area of radish, influenced by chicken manure application, exhibited the highest but had fewer mean
number of leaves along with no compost. Vermicompost, however, results to a higher mean number of leaves.
Furthermore, the observed leaf color of all harvested radish was yellow-green due to pest infestation where leaves
have been damaged preventing it to properly undergo photosynthesis.
 Figure 1. Mean number of leaves and total leaf
area of radish (Raphanus sativus) as influenced
by different compost treatments

70
60 64.6
50
40
41.691 41.3
30
20
10
6.3 9.8 5.3
0
Number of leaves Leaf area

Control Vermicompost Chicken Manure

Theoretically, this is because of the nutrients and composition found in the compost. According to
(Ahmad, A.A. et.al. 2016), chicken manure contains all the essential nutrients needed for a healthy plant growth
and these are N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cl, B, Fe, and Mo but varies based on the feed, supplement,
medications and water consumed by the animals. Manure is applied to improve soil fertility and crop yields.
Moreover, application of manure enhances soil physical properties (bulk density and porosity) and increases soil
organic matter but needs to be properly composted. In light with this, the potential of chicken manure as soil
amendment is effective to address low levels of nutrients and organic matter. However, on one study, it was stated
that to avoid increase in salinity from large quantities of manure application chicken manure should be applied
with phosphate fertilizer (Gizachew, K.B. et.al. 2018). The only limitation of chicken manure is that its unsuitable
for lime-hating plants because having a neutral to moderately alkaline pH 6.5-8.0.
Earthworm (e.g. African night crawler) cast in vermicompost is rich in nitrogen. Nitrogen is required for
cellular synthesis of enzymes, proteins, chlorophyll, DNA, and RNA and is therefore important in plant growth
and production of food. Nitrogen fertilization increases growth and leaf area of plants, which in turn increases
absorption of light, leading to an increase in the production of chlorophyll [Joshi, R.et.al., 2014 as cited by
Ganeshnauth). Even though vermicompost treatment did not have the highest total leaf area, it had sufficient
nitrogen to support maximum chlorophyll production. According to (Bachman, 2007 as cited by Ganeshnauth),
hormone-like activity of vermicompost leads to an increase in root biomass,root initiation, and better growth and
development of plants. Vermicompost had a maximum chlorophyll content, faster germination and faster growth.
Vermicompost is a rich source of humic acids, and humic acid increases plant growth and root biomass.

Generally, manure provides both available and ‘slow release’ N, P, K and micronutrients to crops.
However, nutrients can be easily leached through soil profile if left on the surface and nutrient content is highly
variable. It may also introduce pathogenic bacteria and weed seeds. The advantage of using compost to soil is that
it’s drier than manures with a reduced volume of 50-75% making it easier to transport and apply. It had greater
total concentration than manure on wet basis. It also adds organic matter that releases nutrient slowly. Moreover,
the presence of beneficial microbes increases nutrient cycling and suppress soil and foliar pathogens and weed
seeds due to heat generated during decomposition. It can be a possible source of income for various markets and
applications which can be used by gardeners, mine reclamation sites, as seed starter, potting mixes for nurseries,
as soil amendment for landscaping. However, it involves costly equipment, planning, monitoring and time
produce and may require special permits depending on quantity produces and if selling compost. Likely costlier
that either fertilizer or manure. Nutrient enriched leachate must be controlled to prevent runoff or groundwater
contamination.
Photographs by Ray Rodriguez

Photos below were taken during harvesting. These photos were chosen as the best among nine harvested
radishes. It was observed that its shape and sizes varies and irregular.

Treatments Total fresh weight Marketable fresh Percent marketable

(g) weight fresh weight
(g) (%)

Control 600 550 92

Vermicompost 650 590 91

Chicken manure 740 610 82

Table 1. Total fresh weight, marketable fresh weight, and percent marketable fresh weight influenced by
different compost treatments
The treatment that had the highest percent marketable weight was control, followed by vermicompost,
then chicken manure. A consumer would not buy radish having broad leaves and with short root. They preferred
long and large roots. However, the harvested crop had small and irregular size and shape of radishes. Going back
to Figure 1 radish treated with vermicompost and without compost had the potential to be sold in market assuming
that it has long and large roots after harvesting it.
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The three composting methods are Hot composting, IBS Rapid composting, and Vermicomposting. There
is an addition of Trichoderma and African night crawler to IBS Rapid and Vermicomposting, repectively. These
composts were evaluated based on temperature, physical characteristics (color, odor, and particle size), pH,
weight, and its maturity days. Vermicomposting method had the highest final weight of compost followed by IBS
Rapid compost and Hot compost. Moreover, vermicompost change its color from brown to black and the other
methods change into light brown. There were no foul odor and smaller particle size (soil-like). In addition, because
of excessive watering of the compost there are no observe rise in temperature but it was observed that whenever
the composts were left unwater the temperature had risen. Other factors that contribute to a constant low
temperature is the size of container or bin used, too much moisture which results to compaction of the pile and
the ANC tend to hibernate for the vermicomposting method. The recommended size of the compost bin is 1 m X
1 m to facilitate rise in temperature after 24 hours. Also, the recommended C/N ratio is 30:1 to hasten the compost
decomposition process. It should not be higher or lower than this for it will affect the microorganisms, temperature
and slow its decomposition.
On the other hand, the application of chicken manure and vermicompost in soil differ in their growth
parameter. The total leaf area of chicken manure showed broader leaves as compared to the two treatments but it
exhibited the least average number of leaves. Treatment on vermicompost had exhibited the most average number
of leaves. Furthermore, it has been studied that chicken manure and other manure, in general, provides available
slow release N, P, K and micronutrients to crops. Both vermicompost and chicken manure can be use in the long
run but through split application. But to limit broad leaves vermicompost is more recommended than chicken
manure. Also, because of neutral to moderately alkaline pH of chicken manure it’s not suitable to lime-hating
plants. In addition, the second highest to the percent marketable fresh weight is vermicompost treatment.
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