Piping Component E-books

for Oil & Gas Engineer

LEARN ABOUT PIPING COMPONENTS USED IN PROCESS PIPING

Varun Patel
WWW.HARDHATENGINEER.COM
 Index

1. Pipe

2. Pipe Fittings

3. Flanges

4. Gasket

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 Pipe
Piping covers very large part of any process plant. If you look at Oil Exploration platform, Refinery
and Petrochemical complex one thing that catches the attention is a complex network of piping.
Piping is used to transport various process materials from one equipment to another. But why?

Process Plant is a place where a series of activities performed in particular ordered to convert raw
material into a useful product and interconnected pipe and pipe components are used to
transport raw material, intermediated product and final product to the desired location. Piping
components such Pipe, Elbow, Tee, Reducer, caps, flanges, gasket, and Valves are the basic
building of Oil & Gas industries.

Let’s learn about first building block of Oil & Gas Industries.

1. What is a pipe?
The pipe is a straight pressure tight cylindrical hollow, used in the piping system to transport
liquid, gas and sometimes solids.

2. Types of Pipe
Different types of pipes used in different design conditions, considering technical and
commercial parameters. For small & medium sizes requirement seamless pipe is more popular
whereas for larger diameter welded pipes are more economical.
In the chart below, you can see the most commonly used types of pipe in Oil & Gas industries.

Single
Straight Seam
Seamless
SAW Double
Pipe SAW
Helical/ Seam
Welded
ERW/EFW/ Spiral SAW
HFW

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3. Manufacturing method of Pipe
Seamless pipe:
• Seamless pipe is Strongest amongst all pipes type as it has a Homogenous structure
throughout pipe length.

• Seamless pipes are manufactured in a verity of size. However, there is a Restriction on

the manufacturing of large diameter pipe. Seamless pipes are widely used in the
manufacturing of pipe fittings such as bends, elbows, and tees.

• Seamless pipes are manufactured by any of the following methods;

• Mandrel Mill Process – In this method steel billet is heated to high
temperature in the rotary furnish. A cylindrical hollow which is also known as
mother hollow is produced with the help of a rotary piercer and set of roller
arrangement that keeps the piercer at the center of the billet. Outside
diameter of piercer is approximately that of the inside diameter of finished
pipe. With the help, secondary roller arrangement outside diameter and
thickness are achieved.
• Mannesmann Plug Mill Process – Mannesmann was German engineer who
has invented this method. The only difference between Plug mill process and
Mandrel mill process is that in mandrel method inside diameter is achieved in
single pass whereas in Mannesmann multi-stage reduction is possible.
• Forged Seamless Pipe - In a Forging process, a heated billet is placed in
forging die that has a diameter slightly larger than finished pipe. A hydraulic
press of forging hammer with matching inside diameter is used to create
cylindrical forging. Once this forging is done pipe is machined to achieve final
dimension. Forging is used to manufactured large diameter seamless pipe
that cannot be manufactured using traditional methods. Forged pipes are
normally used for steam header
• Extrusion Processes - In an extrusion method a heated billet is placed inside
the die. A hydraulic ram pushes the billet against the piercing mandrel,
material flows from the cylindrical cavity between die and mandrel. This
action produces the pipe from the billet. Sometimes pipe manufactured
produce pipe with a high thickness which is known as mother hollow. Many
secondary pipes manufactured used this mother hollow to produce pipe with
different dimensions.

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 Welded pipe:
• Welded Pipes are manufactured from Plate or continues Coil or strips. To manufactured
welded pipe, first plate or coil is rolled in the circular section with the help of plate
bending machine or by a roller in the case of continues process. Once the circular
section is rolled from the plate, the pipe can be welded with or without filler material.
Welded pipe can be manufactured in large size without any upper restriction. Welded
pipe with filler material can be used in the manufacturing of long radius bends and
elbow. Welded pipes are cheaper with compared to the seamless pipe and also Weak
due to the weld joint.
There are different welding methods used to weld the pipe.

• ERW- Electric Resistance Welding

• EFW- Electric Fusion Welding

• HFW- High-frequency welding

• SAW- Submerged Arc Welding (Long seam & Spiral Seam)

• In the ERW / EFW / HFW pipe process, first plate is formed in a cylindrical
shape and the longitudinal edges of the cylinder formed are welded by flash-
welding, low-frequency resistance-welding, high-frequency induction
welding, or high-frequency resistance welding.

• In arc welding process, external filler metal (wire electrodes) are used to join
the formed plates. SAW pipes can have a single longitudinal seam of double
longitudinal seam depend on the size of the pipe. SAW pipe are also available
in the spiral seam, which is continually rolled from the single plate coil. The
production rate of spiral SAW pipe is very high as compared to Straight SAW
pipe. However, Spiral SAW pipe are only used in low-pressure services such as
water, non-critical process services etc.

4. Size & Dimension

Pipe Dimensions are covered in following Standard
ASME B36.10 – Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe (Carbon & Alloy Steel)
ASME B36.19 – Stainless Steel Pipe
Three different terms are commonly used to define the size of the pipe.
1. NPS – Nominal Pipe Size
All American standard used NPS designation to define pipe size. This is a modern
derivation of earlier IPS – Iron Pipe Size. NPS is not an OD or ID of the pipe it is in-

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 between of the outer and the inner diameter of the pipe. For example, NPS 2 size
pipe outside diameter is 60 mm or 2.375 inches. In general, NPS 12 and the smaller
pipe has outside diameter greater than the size and for NPS 14 and above size pipe
outside diameter is the same as the size in inches.

2. NB – Nominal Bore
This is the European equivalent of NPS. In this standard pipe sizes are mentioned in
millimeter
3. DN – Diameter nominal
This is the German equivalent of NPS. In this standard also, pipe sizes are mentioned
in millimeter
In the table, you can see the correlation of size and OD.

NPS ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
NB/DN 15 20 25 40 50 80 100 150 200 250 300
OD in
21.3 26.7 33.4 48.3 60.3 88.9 114 168 219 273 324
mm

Small Bore Vs Large / Big Bore Pipe

In the project, you will come across the terms such as small Bore & big bore / large bore.
Pipes having size range ½” – 1 ½ ” are termed as small bore. Pipes having size range
2” & above are termed as big bore.

Pipe Thickness - Schedule number

Pipe Thickness are expressed in Schedule number. What is Schedule No?

• A schedule number is an approximate value of the equation = 1000 P/S

− P is the service pressure in (psi)

− S is the allowable stress in (psi)

• Common schedule nos. are 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160.
• Pipe Thickness are also expressed as STD, extra strong-XS, double extra strong-
XXS.
• Higher the schedule no. higher the thickness of the pipe and smaller the inside
diameter of the pipe as outside diameter of each pipe size is standardized.
• The thickness of stainless steel pipe is also expressed in Schedule number.
Schedule no with S suffix is as per ASME B36.19, and it is used with stainless steel

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 pipe. There is only four schedules are mentioned in ASME code which are 5S, 10S,
40S, 80S. So, please remember schedule no. 10 and 10S do not have the same
thickness.

• Please note that carbon steel schedules equal stainless schedules for following

− Up to NPS 12, all Sch 10 and Sch 10S wall thicknesses are the same.
− Up to NPS 10, all Sch 40, Std Wt and Sch 40S wall thicknesses are the
same.
− Up to NPS 8, all Sch 80, XS and Sch 80S wall thicknesses are the same.

Pipe Length (Single Random Vs Double Random Pipe)

Pipe length is mentioned in either meter or in feet. During production pipe is not
manufactured in same lengths and during construction of process plant, you required
various lengths of pipe. To address this issue standard has defined pipe lengths in single
random and double random categories.
• Single random pipe comes in 4.8 m to 6.7 m in lengths with 5% of lengths in
between 3.7 to 4.8 m
• Double random pipe has a minimum average of 10.7 m and a minimum length of 4.8
m with 5 % of lengths in between 4.8 m to 10.7 m
you can order Fixed length pipe also, but it may cost you more

Pipe Ends
Pipe comes in following 4 end types
1. Plain End – This kind of end used when socket type weld fittings are used.
2. Beveled End – This kind of end used when butt type weld fittings are used.
3. Threaded End – This kind of end used with threaded connections in piping
system
4. Socket & Spigot – This type of end generally used in Ductile iron pipeline and
non-metallic piping pipeline such as PVC, GRE/GRP.

5. Material
ASME B31.3 provides the list of material that can be used in Process Piping. in below
table, you can see the most commonly used material types & their Grades.

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 Carbon steel Stainless steel Low alloy steel Low temp carbon steel
Used up to Used for corrosive Used for temp > Used for temp < (-
425°c fluid (425°c) 29°c)
A53 Gr B A312 Gr TP304 A335 Gr P2 , P12, A333 Gr 6
A106 Gr B A312 Gr TP316 P11, P22, P5, P9
API 5L Gr B A312 Gr TP321

Chemical Properties of these piping material are covered in their respective ASTM
standard. ASTM Standard restrict the use of material produced by certain manufacturing
process only. For example, ASTM A106 allow only killed steel that produces by the open-
hearth, basic-oxygen, or electric furnace, with preferred separate degassing.

6. Heat Treatment (Hot Finished Vs Cold Finished)

Heat treatment of pipe depends on the way it is manufactured.
− In the case of hot finished pipe, no heat treatment is required. As during the
manufacturing, Pipe temp. remain in the range of heat treatment temperature till the
final size and thickness are achieved
− In the case of Cold finished pipe, heat treatment is required as per applicable ASTM
standard. The cold finished pipe is either cold drawn or temperature is not in
maintained in the standard specified range during the manufacturing.
Different heat treatment methods are used for different grade of the pipe material. These
heat treatment methods are
• Normalizing
• Quenching
• Tempering
• Solution Annealing
• Stress relieving
• Or it is a Combination of above

7. Product analysis – Chemical & Mechanical Testing

Metallurgical Tests confirm the chemical requirements of pipe are as per the material
standard.
• Metallurgical Tests are normally known as Micro and Macro testing.
• Micro Analysis or Chemical Analysis of
− Raw material
− Product

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 − And Weld ensures that all the alloying elements are within the range as
specified in the material standard.
• Macro Analysis for Weld will check proper fusion of weld material with pipe
material.
• There are some Special tests also carried out on pipe material when it is going to
be used in aggressive environments. These tests will ensure that pipe material is
able to withstand in such aggressive environments also. Some of the tests are
− Grain size (AS & SS)
− IGC- Intergranular Corrosion Test(SS)
− Ferrite (SS)
− HIC- Hydrogen-induced Cracking
− SSC- Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking
These tests are performed when it is asked by the purchaser in his specification.

The mechanical / Distractive test confirms the mechanical requirements of pipe are as
per the material standard.
In Distractive Testing- a sample from the pipe is cut to performed tests
• The tensile test is done to check yield and ultimate tensile of the pipe. If required
by the purchaser or by standard high or low-temperature tensile test are also
performed.
• Bend test / Guided bend test are used to check integrity of weld joint
• Flattening test examines ability of plastic deformation in pipe
• Impact test / Charpy V-Notch Test, check the ability of material to withstand
under low-temperature conditions
• Creep test is done to check long term effect of temperature under constant load.

8. Inspection – Hydro test, NDT, Visual, Dimension Tolerance

To ensure product quality, during and after the production certain inspection and non-
destructive testing are performed on the pipe body & weld. They will check whether any
physical defects are present in the pipe / weld, which may affect its performance during
the service. These testing are

− Flux leakage examination or Magnetic flaw detection

− Eddy current
− Ultrasonic – can be done on full body or only for weld seam
− Radiography (Only for Weld)

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 − Magnetic particle test for pipe ends & weld seam
− And Positive Material Identification.
Hydrostatic Test is carried out to
• Ensure that pipe is 100% leak proof
• It also ensures the ability to withstand pressure
• Hydro test pressure is calculated based on equation given in ASTM A530,

P = 2St/D or S = PD/2t
P = hydrostatic test pressure in psi or Mpa,
S = pipe wall stress in psi or Mpa,
t = specified nominal wall thickness, nominal wall thickness corresponding
to specified ANSI schedule number, or 1.143 times the specified minimal
wall thickness, in. [mm], and
D = specified outside diameter, outside diameter corresponding to
specified ANSI pipe size, or outside diameter calculated by adding 2t (as
defined above) to the specified inside diameter, in. [mm].
• Holding time for the hydro test is minimum 5 sec as per ASTM A530. Pressure is
monitored by the computerizing system.
• For welded pipe, the test pressure should be held for a time, sufficient to permit
the inspector to examine the entire length of the welded seam
• Hydrostatic test can be waived under certain conditions as set in the ASTM
standard
Visual Inspection
• Visual Inspection is one of the most effective inspection method used to check
overall product quality. During the visual inspection, you will check for overall
product finish. You will check for surface imperfections such as mechanical marks,
lamination, tears or any other visual imperfections and also check weld defects such
as porosity, undercuts, uneven weld bead, and excess or under fill of weld material.
Acceptance of these imperfections is as per applicable ASTM standard
Dimension inspection
• Dimension inspection of the pipe is carried out based on the Dimension Standard,
final dimension of the pipe must confirm the following standard or it should be as
specified in purchaser’s specification.
• For Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe dimensional requirements are cover in
ASME B36.10
• For Stainless Steel Pipe dimensional requirements are cover in ASME B36.19

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 During dimensional inspection, following to be confirmed with standard
− Diameter
− Length
− Thickness
− Straightness
− Ovality &
− Weight
Permissible Variations depends on manufacturing standard.
Tolerances for Outside Diameter Pipe
Nominal Pipe Size Carbon Steel Stainless Steel
NPS DN ASTM A53M ASTM A106M ASTM A999M
⅛ to 1½ 6 to 40 ±0.4 mm ±0.4 mm +0.4 / -0.8 mm
Over 1½ to
±1% ±0.8 mm ±0.8 mm
4 Over 40 to 100
+1.6 / -0.8
±1% +1.6 / -0.8 mm
Over 4 to 8 Over 100 to 200 mm
+2.4 / -0.8
±1% +2.4 / -0.8 mm
Over 8 to 18 Over 200 to 450 mm
Over 18 to +3.2 / -0.8
±1% +3.2 / -0.8 mm
26 Over 450 to 650 mm
Over 26 to +4.0 / -0.8
±1% +4.0 / -0.8 mm
34 Over 650 to 850 mm
Over 34 to Over 850 to +4.8 / -0.8
±1% +4.8 / -0.8 mm
48 1200 mm

Tolerances for Wall Thickness of Pipe

Nominal Pipe Size Carbon Steel Stainless Steel
ASTM A53M & ASTM A312M
NPS DN
106M
6 to 65 ⅛ to 2½ -12.5% minimum +20.0 / -12.5%
3 to 18, t/D ≤ 5% 80 to 450, t/D ≤ 5%
+22.5 / -12.5%
t/D > 5% t/D > -12.5% minimum
+15.0 / -12.5%
5%
20 and over… 500 and over… -12.5% minimum
▪ welded ▪ welded (maximum wall +17.5 / -12.5%
▪ seamless, t/D ≤ 5% ▪ seamless, t/D ≤ 5% thickness limited only +22.5 / -12.5%
▪ seamless, t/D > 5% ▪ seamless, t/D > 5% by mass) +15.0 / -12.5%
t = nominal wall thickness D = ordered outside diameter

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 Tolerances for Mass / weight of Pipe
The mass of all carbon steel pipe and seamless stainless steel pipe is limited to
+10% and a minus limit that varies depending on size – refer to standards for
more details.
Straightness
The carbon steel pipe standards require only that “the finished pipe shall be reasonably
straight”.
ASTM A312M (in ASTM A999M) requires welded stainless steel pipe to be straight to
within 3.2 mm over 3.0 m length. Generally, thumb rule is that 1 mm per meter is
acceptable. However, most purchaser clearly specified a maximum acceptable limit for
straightness.

9. Marking
Once the pipe is cleared all test and inspection, it is marked as per the standard
requirements
• Following shall be marked on pipe
− Manufacturer logo
− ASTM material code
− Material Grade
− Size
− Thickness- schedule no.
− Length
− Heat No
− Special marking WR for weld repair or NH for the non-hydro tested pipe.
• These Marking can be done by paint or by Hard punching
• For stainless steel, pipe stenciling is also used
• Please note that
− For carbon steel no hard punching below 6 mm thickness
− For stainless steel no hard punching below 12 mm thickness

10. Packing
To prevent the damage during transportation, pipe ends are covered with a cap. Spider
supports at the end of the pipe are also installed in Large diameter pipe to protect
circularity of pipe.

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11. Supplementary requirements
Supplementary requirements are optional requirements that purchaser has to specify
along with purchase requisition. Mainly these requirements are related to additional
testing of the product such as low-temperature tensile, transverse tensile, restriction on
Carbon Equivalent etc.

Each standard lists these requirements at the end of the standard product requirements.

Refer Table for Supplementary requirements of ASTM A106 & ASTM A312,

ASTM A106 ASTM A312

Product Analysis Product Analysis
Transverse Tension Test Transverse Tension Test
Flattening Test, standard Flattening Test
Flattening Test, Enhanced Etching Tests
Metal Structure and Etching Test Radiographic Examination
Carbon Equivalent Stabilizing Heat Treatment
Heat Treated Test Specimens Intergranular Corrosion Test
Internal Cleanliness–Government Orders Minimum Wall Pipe
Requirements for Carbon Steel Pipe for Weld Decay Test
Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation Service

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 Pipe Fittings
1. What is Pipe Fittings?
Fittings are Piping component which helps in Changes the direction of the flow such as elbows, tee.
Changes the size of the pipe such as reducers, reducing tees. Connect to components together such as
couplings and stop the flows such as Caps.

Elbow:

Elbow is used more than any other pipe

fittings. It Provides flexibility to change the
pipe direction. Elbow mainly available in two
standard types 90° and 45°. However, it Can
be cut to any other degree.

Elbows are available in two radius types,

Short radius (1D) and Long radius (1.5D).

A Long Radius elbow is having the radius equivalent to 1.5

times the Diameter of the pipe and a Short Radius elbow
is having the radius equivalent to the Diameter of the pipe.

• Long Radius A=1.5D

• Short Radius A=1D

When fluids are transported to long distances or go frequent directional changes, short radius elbows are
not recommended because of their greater friction loss, which may require installation of larger pump or
compressor.

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Reducing Elbow:

The 90 reducing elbow is designed to change direction as well as reduce the

length of flow within a piping system. The reducing elbow eliminates one
fitting and reduces the welding by more than one-third. Also, the gradual
reduction in diameter throughout the arc of the reducing elbow provides
lower resistance to flow and reduces the effect of stream turbulence and
potential internal erosion. These features prevent sizeable pressure drops in
the line.

Miter bend:
Miter bends are not standard fittings they are fabricated from pipes. Usually they are preferred for
size 10” & above because large size elbow is expensive. Use of miter bend is restricted to low pressure
water line. Miter bend can be fabricated in 2, 3, & 5 pieces.

Returns:

Retuning elbows are used to make 180º change in direction.

Available in short & long pattern. Mainly used in heating coil, heat
exchanger etc.

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Tee:
There are different types of Tee used in piping,
• Equal/Straight Tee– in this type of tee Diameter of Branch is same as the Diameter of the Run
Pipe
• In Reducing Tee – Diameter of the Branch size is smaller than the Diameter of the Run Pipe

Cross:

Cross are also known as four-way fittings. A cross has one inlet and
three outlets (or vice versa). Generally, crosses are not used in
process piping to transport fluid. But forged crosses are common
in fire water sprinkler line.

Reducer:

There are two types of reducer used in piping Concentric & Eccentric.

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 • In Concentric reducer, center of the both the ends are on same axis. It maintains the center line
elevation of pipe line.
• Whereas in Eccentric reducer, center of the both the ends are on different axis as shown in
image. It maintains BOP (bottom of pipe) elevation of pipe line.

(𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐷 − 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐷)

𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 =
2
Swage:
Swage is like reducers used to connect butt welded pipes to
smaller screwed or socket welded pipes. Like reducers they are
concentric & eccentric type. They are covered under the
regulatory code BS – 3799.

Pipe caps:
Pipe caps are used at the dead end of the piping system. It is also used in
piping headers for future connections

Stub ends:

Stub ends are used with lap joint flange. In this type of flange, stub is
butt welded with pipe, whereas flange is freely move over the stub
end.

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Union:
Union is used to connect small bore pipes. It can be socket end or threaded end

Half Coupling & Full Coupling:

Half Coupling generally used for branching or for vessel connections. It can
be threaded or socket type.
Full Coupling Generally used for connecting pipes or items with either
threaded or socket ends.

2. Pipe Fitting Dimensions

Wrought Fittings Size & Thickness are always in line with connecting pipe dimension.

• Fittings are sized with respect to pipe size. In Nominal pipe size (NPS) & also as a Diameter
nominal (DN)
• Thicknesses are marked in schedule no. Fitting are generally have a higher thickness than pipe to
avoid any rejection due to thickness reduction during manufacturing. To avoid mismatch of
fittings ID to pipe ID, manufacturer bevel the inside edge of fittings.
Forged Fittings are classified based on its pressure-temperature class

• Socket weld & Threaded end fittings are available from NPS 1/8” to 4” size
• Forged Fittings are available in following pressure-temperature ratings class
− 2000 (Only Threaded Fittings)
− 3000 & 6000 (for both types)
− 9000 (Only Socket weld Fittings)

3. Fitting Materials
Fittings are always connected with pipe hence, Chemical and Mechanical property of these material to
match with pipe material

• Fittings are manufactured in different material grade to match pipe material such as carbon
steel, alloy steel, stainless steel and exotic material such as titanium, copper alloy etc.

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 • ASME B16.9 &16.28 provides list of material used to manufactured wrought fittings
• ASME B16.34 Provides list of material used to manufactured forged fittings as per ASME B16.11
• ASME B16.9 is standard for - Factory-Made Wrought Buttwelding Fittings & ASME
B16.28 is standard for - Butt-Welded Short Radius Elbows & Returns Bends
• ASME B16.11 is standard for - Forged steel socket welding & threaded fittings which
refer another ASME standard for material which is standard for ASME B16.34 Flanged,
Threaded, And Welding End Valves
Material grade shall be prefix with WP if fittings are made as per ASME B16.9 & B16.28

• Commonly used material grades for wrought fittings are listed hear
• For Carbon Steel :- ASTM A234Gr.WPA/B, ASTM A420 Gr.WPL6
• For Alloy Steel :- ASTM A234 WP1 /WP5 /WP7 /WP9 /WP11 /WP12 /WP22
• And for Stainless Steel :- ASTM A403 WP304 /WP304L /WP304H /WP316 / WP316L/ WP321/
WP347

4. Pipe Fittings Manufacturing

Fittings are manufactured from Seamless Pipe and from Welded Pipe with filler material (ERW & EFW
pipes cannot be used to manufactured fittings). large diameter fittings are manufactured from Plate.
To manufactured wrought fitting various methods are used, these are all different type of Hot and cold
forming process. These methods are

• Hot forming or Extrusion Method

• Hydraulic Bulge method – Cold forming
• UO or Single weld seam Method
• Monaka or Double weld seam Method
• Deep Drawing Method for caps
• Flare Method for Stub ends
ELBOWS: Mandrel method (Hot Forming)

• One of the most common manufacturing methods for manufacturing Elbows from pipe is
mandrel method which is kind of hot forming methods.
• In this method pipe is cut in pieces and push with the help of hydraulic ram. Induction heating
coil heat the pipe and, it is pushed over a die called "mandrel" which allows the pipe to expand
and bend simultaneously.
• This method can be used to manufacture a wide range of diameter of elbows.

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Extrusion Method
In cold Extrusion method, a pipe with the same diameter as finished product, is pushed through a die
and formed into its desired shape. Usually applied to stainless steel small to medium sizes elbows.

UO Method
UO method is used to manufacture medium size of elbow, tee and reducers. Plate is cut out into a specially
designed shape, it is formed first into a U-shape using a die and then into an O-shape or tubular form
using another die, that is why this method is known as UO method. Once the fittings formed in tumbler

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shaped it is welded from inside and outside of the closing seam. A cut plate is 1st from in U shape and then
in O shape.

Hot Forming Method

In a Hot Forming Die Bending method a Pipe is heated to forming temperature & formed in die with
specific shape, this process may be repeated as needed to obtain the required shape, size and wall
thickness. Usually applied to thick-wall items that cannot be bent on a mandrel die

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Hydraulic Bulge method

Hydraulic Bulge method is used to manufacture Tee. Cut piece of Pipe is placed in hydraulic die and liquid
is fill inside the pipe, Hydraulic pressure pushes out the branch, in the fixed opening in the die. This method
gives good surface finish. However, higher thickness Tee cannot be manufactured by this method.

Hot Extrusion Method for Tee Manufacturing

Tees with large diameters, heavy wall thickness and /or special material with challenging workability that
cannot be manufactured using the hydraulic bulge method are manufactured using hot Extrusion Method.
In hot Extrusion Method, Normally Bigger diameter pipe is used than the finished product size, the branch
outlet is extruded from the pipe with help of extrusion tool. Other dimensions of body and branched can
also be adjusted by pressing the die if required.

Outer Die Method

Most common method for manufacturing Reducers is Outer Die method. Pipe is cut and pressed in the
outer die; compressing the one end of pipe into a smaller size. This method is useful for manufacturing of
small to medium size of reducers.

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Deep Drawing Method
CAPS are manufactured by Deep Drawing method. In this method Plate is cut out in a circle and formed
by deep drawing die.

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Flaring Method
Stub Ends or Lap Joints Flange are manufactured by flaring method. Pipe end is flare or spared out to
form flange face as shown in picture. Stub ends are also manufactured by forging in which forge block
are machined to final dimension.

5. Fitting heat Treatment

Hot finished pipe fittings do not require heat treatment, however for Cold finished pipe fittings Heat
treatment is required as per applicable ASTM standard.

• Common Heat Treatment for Fittings are

• Normalizing
• Quenching
• Tempering
• Solution Annealing
• Stress reliving
• And Combination of above

6. Hydrotest for Pipe Fittings

• Hydrostatic Test Not required for pipe fittings unless specifically requested by purchaser
• Code mandate that fittings shall be able to withstand under pressure required by applicable
Piping Code.
• Most purchasers mandate, that a hydro tested pipe shell be used to manufacture fittings.
Proof Test
To qualified the design of the pipe fitting,
manufacturer performed a various test
including burst test to ensure that design will
meet the all the standard & code
requirements. In this test, a pipe & fittings
are welded and a dummy pipe spool is
prepared. This pipe spool is then pressurized
to pre define calculated burst test pressure.
If the fittings withstand the test, all the future
product manufactured using that design will
consider safe to use.

Lap joint stub ends are exempt from the

proof test because they are used with flange
assembly and design considering applicable pressure- temperature ratings.

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7. Non Destructive testing
Based on type of fittings any of the following Non Destructive testing are performed on finished fittings
to ensure soundness of product.

• Ultrasonic
• Radiography (Only for Weld)
• Magnetic particle test
• Liquid penetrant test
• And Positive Material Identification

8. Distractive Testing
Distractive Testing are performed to check of the strength of the body and weld of the product.

• Proof test is also known as type test or burst test. Manufacturer use this test to qualify fitting
design. Fittings are welded with pipe and pressurize up to burst pressure calculated by design or
till the fittings burst. This is one time test to qualify the fitting design. Other destructive test are
• Tensile test
• Impact test / Charpy V-Notch Test
• And hardness test

9. Metallurgical Tests
Metallurgical Tests are performed on fittings body and weld to confirm standard requirements

• Micro Analysis or Chemical Analysis of

− Raw material
− Product
− Weld
• Macro Analysis
− Weld

10. Special Tests

• Special tests are carried out on fittings to confirm its ability to with stand in corrosive
environments. These tests are
− IGC- Intergranular Corrosion Test(SS)
− Ferrite (SS)
− HIC- Hydrogen-induced Cracking

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 − And SSC- Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking
− Grain size (AS & SS) of material are checked to confirm micro structure.

11. Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection are conducted on fittings to check any surface imperfections.

Both fittings body and weld are checked for any visible surface imperfections such as dents, die marks,
porosity, undercuts etc.

Acceptance as per applicable standard

12. Dimension Inspection

Dimension of the fittings must meet the standard requirements.

• For Wrought Product (WP) Dimension are covered in

− ASME B16.9- Factory-made Wrought Butt-welding Fittings for size NPS ½ through NPS
48 and
− B16.28- for Wrought Steel Butt-Welding Short Radius Elbows and Returns for size NPS ½
through NPS 24
• For Forged Fittings Dimension are covered in
− ASME B16.11- Forged Steel Fittings, Socket Welding and Threaded
• Following to be confirm during inspection
− Diameter
− Length
− Thickness schedule no
− Straightness & perpendicularity of the fittings ends
− Degree of elbows & bends
− And Concentricity of reducer

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Nominal
Elbows
Pipe All Fittings 180 Deg Return Bends Reducers Caps
and Tees
Size
I.D.
O.D.
at Centre-to- Centre- Back-
at Wall Alignment Overall Overall
End End to to
NPS Bevel Thickness of Ends Length Length
(1), Dimension -Centre -Face
(1), (3) U H E
(3), A,B,C,M O K
(2)
(4)
1/2 to +0.06
0.03 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.03 0.06 0.12
21/2 -0.03
3 to
0.06 0.06 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.03 0.06 0.12
31/2
4 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.03 0.06 0.12
+0.09 Not less
5 to 8 0.06 than 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.03 0.06 0.25
-0.06
+0.16 87.5% of
10 to 18 0.12 nominal 0.09 0.38 0.25 0.06 0.09 0.25
-0.12
+0.25 thickness
20 to 24 0.19 0.09 0.38 0.25 0.06 0.09 0.25
-0.19
+0.25
26 to 30 0.19 0.12 … … … 0.19 0.38
-0.19
+0.25
32 to 48 0.19 0.19 … … … 0.19 0.38
-0.19

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 All dimensions are given in inches. Tolerances are equal
Angularity Tolerances
plus and minus except as noted.
Nominal
Pipe Size
NPS Off Angle Off Plane (1) Out-of-round is the sum of absolute values of plus and
Q P minus tolerance.

1/2 to 4 0.03 0.06 (2) This tolerance may not apply in localized areas of formed
fittings where increased wall thickness is required to meet
5 to 8 0.06 0.12
design requirements of ASME B16.9.
10 to 12 0.09 0.19
14 to 16 0.09 0.25 (3) The inside diameter and the nominal wall thicknesses at
18 to 24 0.12 0.38 ends are to be specified by the purchaser.
26 to 30 0.19 0.38 (4) Unless otherwise specified by the purchaser, these
32 to 42 0.19 0.50 tolerances apply to the nominal inside diameter, which equals
the difference between the nominal outside diameter and
44 to 48 0.18 0.75 twice the nominal wall thickness.

13. Pipe Fitting Marking

Following shall be marked on Fittings
• Manufacturer logo
• ASTM material code
• Material Grade
• Size, for tee size of branch & run pipe and for reducer size of both end
• Thickness (Schedule No) for both the ends if they are connected to different thickness pipe
• Heat No
• Compliance - for standard fittings –WP, for Special fittings S58, S8, SPLD etc.

Marking can be done by painting or by Hard punching. For stainless steel stenciling can be used. For
carbon steel no hard punching below 6 mm thickness and for stainless steel no hard punching below 12
mm thickness

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 Pipe Flanges
1. Flange
The flange is second most used joining method after welding. Flanges are used when joints need
dismantling. It Provides flexibility for maintenance. Flange Connects the pipe with various equipment and
valves. Breakup flanges are added in the pipeline system if regular maintenance in required during plant
operation.

A flanged joint is composed of three separate and independent although interrelated components; the
flanges, the gaskets, and the bolting; which are assembled by yet another influence, the fitter. Special
controls are required in the selection and application of all these elements to attain a joint, which has
acceptable leak tightness.

However, it is not advisable to used flange connection in underground piping when it supposed to be
buried. The flange is also a most common source of leak and fire in a process plant. There are variety of
flanges available to suit the requirements. Flanged can be classified in several alternate ways as follows:

1. Based on Types of Connection

2. Based on Flange facing Types
3. Based on Pressure Temperature Ratings
4. Based on Material Types

2. Flange Types
Threaded Flanges
Threaded Flanges are also known as screwed flange, and it is having a thread inside the flange bore which
fits on the pipe with matching male thread on the pipe. This type of joint connection is Speedy and simple
but not suitable for high presser and temperature applications. Threaded Flanges are mostly used in utility
services such as air and water.

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Socket-Weld Flanges
Socket-Weld Flanges has a female socket in which pipe is fitted. Fillet welding is done from outside on the
pipe. Generally, it is used in small bore piping and only suitable for low pressure and temperature
application.

Slip-On Flanges
Slip-On flange has a hole with matching outside diameter of pipe from which pipe can pass. The flange is
placed on pipe and fillet welded from both inside and outside. Slip-On Flange is suitable for low pressure
and temperature application. This type of flange is available in large size also to connect big bore piping
with storage tank nozzles. Normally, these flanges are of forged construction and are provided with the
hub. Sometimes, these flanges are fabricated from plates and are not provided with the hub.

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Lap Joint Flanges
Lap flange is having two components, a stub end, and a loose backing flange. Stub end is butt welded to
the pipe and Backing flange freely move over the pipe. The backing flange can be of different material
than stub material and normally of the carbon steel to save the cost. Lap flange is used where frequent
dismantling is required, and space is constrained.

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Weld Neck Flanges
Weld neck flange are most widely used flanged in process piping. It gives the highest level of joint integrity
due to Butt-welded with a pipe. These types of flanges are used in high pressure and temperature
application. Weld neck flanges are Bulky & costly with respect to other types of flange.

Blind Flanges
The blind flange is a blank disc with bolt hole. These types of flanges are used with another type of flange
to isolate the piping system or to terminate the piping as an end. Blind flanges are also used as a manhole
cover in the vessel.

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3. Flange Facing Types
Based on Flange facing Types, it can be further classified as

• Flat Face (FF)

• Raised Face (RF)
• Ring Joint (RTJ)
• Tongue and groove (T&G)
• And Male and Female types

Flat Face
As name suggest, flat face flange has a flat face. Flat face flanges are used when the counter flanges are
flat face. This condition occurs mainly on connection to Cast Iron equipments, valves and specialties. Full
face gasket is used when flat face flange is used.

Raised Face
Raised face flange has small portion around the bore is raised from the face. The gasket seat on this
raised face. The height of the raised face depends on the flange pressure temperature rating that is
known as a class of the flange. For 150# & 300# height of the raised face is 1/6” and above 300# it is
1/4”. The inside bore circle type of gasket is used with raised face flange.

RTJ Face
Ring joint type face flange has a specially designed grove in which metal gasket seat. This type of flange
is used in high pressure and temperature services.

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Serration on the Flange Face
The flange face has small grooves as you can see in the image. This machining is known as a
serration. Flange face can be smooth or serrated type. Which type of face to use is depends on
the type of the gasket and service of the fluid.

Smooth finish is used with metallic gasket whereas serrated finish is used with non-metallic
gasket. Soft material of gaskets is set in this serration and prevent liquid or gas from passing
from flange joint.

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Serration can be spiral or concentric rings as you can see in the slide. Concentric rings type
finishing is used when fluid is of very low density. If you use spiral type finish with very low
density fluid, it may find leakage path through the spiral cavity.

Serration of flange face is specified in RMS (Root Mean Square) or AARH (Arithmetic Average
Rough Height), the most common value of serrated face is 120-250 AARH. Comparator gauge is
used to check serration of the flange. In the image, you can see the how gauge is used to verify
the value of serration.

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4. Flange Pressure-Temperature Class (Service Rating)
Flange are classified as per their pressure-temperature ratings which are designated as 150#, 300#,
400#, 600#, 900#, 1500# and 2500#. Large diameter flanges that is 24” to 60” are available up to 900#
class. Pressure-temperature ratings are maximum allowable working gage pressures in the bar & the
temperatures in degrees Celsius.

Higher the rating, heavier the flange and can withstand higher pressure and temperature. When the
temperature goes up, the pressure goes down, and vice versa. Please note that different material has
different pressure ratings.

5. Flange Material
Flanges are manufactured from

•Carbon steel
•Low alloy steel
•Stainless steel
•Or Combination of Exotic materials (Stub) and other backing materials
List of materials used to manufacture flanges is covered in ASME B16.5 & B16.47.

•ASME B16.5 -Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings NPS ½” to 24”

•ASME B16.47 -Large Diameter Steel Flanges NPS 26” to 60”
Commonly used Forged material grads are

•Carbon Steel: - ASTM A105, ASTM A350 LF1/2, ASTM A181

•Alloy Steel: - ASTM A182F1 /F2 /F5 /F7 /F9 /F11 /F12 /F22
•Stainless Steel: - ASTM A182F6 /F304 /F304L /F316 /F316L/ F321/F347/F348

6. Flange Inspection
Following to be confirmed during inspection of flange

−Outer & Inner Diameter of body

−Bolt Circle & Bolt hole Diameter
−Hub Diameter & thickness of weld end
−Length of the Hub
−Straightness and alignment of the bolt hole

Permissible tolerances are given in B16.5 and B16.47 standard.

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7. Marking
Following shall be marked on flange body
− Manufacturer logo
− ASTM material code
− Material Grade
− Service rating (Pressure-temperature Class)
− Size
− Thickness (Schedule)
− Heat No
− And Special marking if any QT (Quenched and tempered) or W (Repair by welding)

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 Gasket
What is Gasket?
A Gasket is sealing material placed between connecting Flanges to create a static seal, which will
Maintain the leak-proof sealing in all operating conditions

Gasket Selection Criteria

• Type of Gasket to be used in given fluid service is depends on the parameters such as
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Corrosion resistance
• Types of fluid
• Robustness
• Availability
• And Cost

Types of Gasket Used in Piping

There are three types of gasket used in process piping. Non-Metallic, Metallic and Composite.

Non-Metal Gasket
• Most common materials used for this type of gaskets are Rubber, Teflon and Compressed Non-
Asbestos Fiber (CNAF)
• These gaskets are also known as a Soft gasket. It can be full face or inside bolt circle type. Next
slide will cover what is the full face and inside bolt circle means.
• Non-Metallic gaskets can easily compress with low tension bolting
• These types of gaskets are used with low-pressure class flanged such as 150 or 300 Class and in
low-temperature services
• They are not used in hydrocarbon services
• Non-Metallic gaskets are Cheapest and easily available
You can see in the right-side image, which shows full-face gasket and left side is inside bolt circle gasket.
The image also shows CNAF & PTFE gaskets.

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Full face gasket can only be used with FF flange and normally used for temporary connection of utility
lines.

Metal Gasket
• Metal gaskets are manufactured from material such as Soft iron, Low Carbon steel, Stainless
Steel, Monel and Inconel
• These gaskets are also known as ring gasket or RTJ gaskets
• Metallic gaskets are used in high-pressure class flanges, normally above 900 Class, they can also
be used for high-temperature services.
• High tension bolting is required when we used metallic gaskets.
• They are Very robust & Most costly
There are two types of the metallic gasket are frequently used with RTJ flange. Octagonal and Oval. you
can see the difference in their cross-section view.

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Composite Gasket
• Composite gaskets are Combination of metal and non-metal material. Different types of
combination of materials are possible based on service requirement.
• Spiral wound, Metal Jacketed, and Kamprofile gasket are well known in composite gasket
category. They can be Used in wide range of pressure and temperature services
• Composite gaskets are Cost effective with compare to metal gaskets but Careful handling is
required.

Spiral Wound Gasket

The most widely used Composite type gasket is a Spiral Wound Gasket. It is suitable for wide range of
pressure and temperature class. Normally Graphite or PTFE used as filler material & Stainless steel or
other exotic material is used as winding material.
There are three components in spiral wound gasket. Inner & Outer ring, filler material, and winding
material. However, sometimes an inner ring is not used. You can see in the image spiral wound gasket
with and without inner ring. The inner ring is used to provide additional support to the winding material.
The winding is an alternative layer of filler material and winding material. The filler material is a soft
material such as graphite and PTFE and winding material is a thin sheet of metal. Winding can be a V-type
or W type as shown in the image.

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Metal Jacketed Gasket
In Metal Jacketed Gasket Soft filler material is enclosed in a thin sheet of metal jacket. There are
different ways to cover filler material as shown in the image. Metal jacketed gaskets are commonly used
in heat exchangers & valve.

Kamm/ Cam profile Gasket

Kamm/ Cam profile Gasket is having solid Metalcore with concentric grooves. Filler material, either
graphite or PTFE is layered on this grooved metal ring. It is Costlier than Spiral wound gasket but provides
better blowout resistance and easy to handle even in large diameters. Sometimes due to high pressure
and temperature winding of spiral wound gasket disintegrate, if the winding quality is poor, that is called
blowout of the gasket.

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