TECHNOLOGY

Grade 8
Book 1

CAPS

Learner Book

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Foundation in partnership with the Ukuqonda Institute.

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 Published by The Ukuqonda Institute
9 Neale Street, Rietondale, 0084
Registered as a Title 21 company, registration number 2006/026363/08
Public Benefit Organisation, PBO Nr. 930035134
Website: http://www.ukuqonda.org.za

First published in 2013

© 2013. Copyright in the work is vested in the publisher.
Copyright in the text remains vested in the contributors.

ISBN: 978-1-920705-02-2

This book was developed with the participation of the Department of Basic Education of South
Africa with funding from the Sasol Inzalo Foundation.

Contributors:
Graham Barlow, Louis Botha, John de Klerk, Jacqui Greenop, Chris Human,
Piet Human, Riekie Human, Xenia Kyriacou, Morne Labuschagne, John Laurie,
Ezekiel Makwana, Rallai Maleka, Mafahle Mashegoana, Themba Mavuso,
Peter Middleton, Lebogang Modisakwena, Peter Moodie, Neil Murtough, Sarah Niss,
Humphrey Nkgogo, Phillip Radingoane, Jan Randewijk, Margot Roebert, Marlene Rousseau,
Marcus Taba, Yvonne Thiebaut, Cecile Turley, Louis van Aswegen, Karen van Niekerk, Elene van
Sandwyk
Illustrations and graphics:
Astrid Blumer (Happy Artworks Studio), Ian Greenop, Chris Human, Piet Human,
Peter Middleton, Peter Moodie, Melany Pietersen (Happy Artworks Studio),
Theo Sandrock, Lisa Steyn Illustration, Heine van As (Happy Artworks Studio),
Leonora van Staden, Geoff Walton
Cover illustration: Leonora van Staden
Photographs:
Lenni de Koker, Ian Greenop, Chris Human, Tessa Oliver,
Elsa Retief (GalleryProductions)
Text design: Mike Schramm
Layout and typesetting: Lebone Publishing Services

Thanks for free sharing of ideas, and free access to photographs, to:
Cape Peninsula Fire Protection Association, National Sea Rescue Institute,
Beate Hölscher (South African Environmental Observation Network),
The Transitions Collective (www.ishackliving.co.za).
Thanks to people or institutions who placed photographs in the public
domain on www.commons.wikimedia.org, with no attribution required.
Thanks to June Ruivivar (2004), whose photo appears on page 45, for sharing that photo on
www.wikipedia.org under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License.
Printed by [printer name and address]

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 COPYRIGHT NOTICE

Your freedom to legally copy this book

This book is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0

Unported License (CC BY-NC).

You are allowed and encouraged to freely copy this book.You can photocopy, print
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Restrictions: You may not make copies of this book for a profit-seeking purpose.
This holds for printed, electronic and web-based copies of this book, and any part
of this book.

For more information about the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial

3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC 3.0) license, see http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/3.0/

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 Table of contents
Term 1
Chapter 1:
Roofs and pylons ..................................................................... 1

Chapter 2:
Buildings and bridges ............................................................ 17

Chapter 3:
Flat and isometric working drawings .................................... 33

Chapter 4:
Perspective drawing ............................................................... 45

Chapter 5:
Wedges, wheels and gears .................................................... 57

Chapter 6:
Mechanisms that change the type of movement................. 71

Chapter 7 Mini-PAT:
Design and make a model of a machine to crush grain ..... 85

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 Term 2
Chapter 8:
The impact of Technology on society and the
environment ........................................................................... 109

Chapter 9:
Making new things out of old things .................................... 123

Chapter 10 Mini-PAT:
Design a house to use less energy ....................................... 139

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 Term 1
Chapter 1
Roofs and pylons

In this chapter, you will learn more about frame structures.

1.1 How can you make a roof withstand the forces acting on it? ................................................. 4
1.2 More types of forces ........................................................................................................ 7
1.3 Electricity pylons ............................................................................................................ 12

Figure 1: Internal view of a roof structure

TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 1 1

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 Figure 2: Different types of electricity pylons

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 Figure 3: Different types of roof trusses

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 3

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 1.1 How can you make a roof withstand the forces acting
on it?
People make and build many different kinds of things, such as houses, motor cars,
roads and dams. We also make items like bottles, clothes, books and furniture.
Some things, like forks and spoons and knives, are solid objects that consist of
one part only. Other objects, like bottles, pots and water tanks, are hollow objects
that can also be called shells. We also make objects that consist of different parts
that are put together, like chairs, tables and bridges. These objects are called frame
structures and it is important to try to make frame structures strong.

Learn about roofs

Fold a sheet of cardboard in the middle so that

it looks like the roof of the house in Figure 4.

1. Use your hand to press down on the cardboard

Figure 4
roof. What happens?

2. Your house’s roof plates may be very strong and will not bend. But what will
happen when a couple of big men sit on the roof to fasten the roof sheets?

One way to make a roof stronger is to use more and

thicker materials. However, this is not always a good
plan since it will cost a lot more money. It can also
make the roof so heavy that the walls of the building
are not strong enough to carry it.
Figure 5

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 A few ways to strengthen a cardboard roof model are The word “brace” comes
shown in the sketches below. from the French word “bras”,
3. Look carefully at each of the sketches. Then write a which means “arm”. When you
sentence for each sketch to describe the method to brace a structure, you put in
strengthen the roof by bracing it. something like an extra arm to
make it stronger.

A B C
Figure 6

(a) Case A:

(b) Case B:

(c) Case C:

Many roofs are supported by frame

structures called trusses. Trusses can be
made of wood or steel. The different parts
of a truss are called members. Each truss vertical
has a vertical member in the middle. This member
is called a king post.
In some truss designs, there are more
vertical members. You can see more roof
truss designs on the irst pages of this Figure 7: Incomplete roof trusses
chapter.

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 5

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 Roof trusses have to support the weight of the roof materials, such as roof sheets.

4. What part of the roof trusses

shown here will prevent them
from tearing apart when the
roof sheets are loaded onto
them? Mark this part on one of
the roof trusses on Figure 8.

The horizontal member at the

bottom of a truss prevents the two
sides from ripping apart. Instead of a
plank, a rope or a wire can be used to
tie the bottom ends of the two sides
together. When a plank or piece of
steel is used for this purpose, it is
called a tie beam. Figure 8
A tie beam has to be strong enough
so that it will not rip apart by the forces
acting on it. The weight of the roof plates
pressing down on the trusses can cause
the ends of the trusses to pull apart.
You can say that there is tension in
the tie beam, just like there is tension
in a rope you pull.
Forces that cause tension are called
tensile forces.

Figure 9: The yellow tie beam is under

tension.

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 1.2 More types of forces
Making a roof even stronger

The two sloping members on the sides of horizontal

beam in Figure 10 are called rafters.
1. Write the name of each of the four members next
to the member on the diagram in Figure 10. This is
called adding labels to the diagram.

Figure 10

The rafters may bend when the wind blows against the roof, or when a heavy load
is placed on the roof.

Figure 11

2. What can you do to

strengthen the trusses so
that the rafters will not
bend when a heavy load
is acting on them? Make a
sketch here to show your
plan.

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 7

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 The trusses on the right
have struts to support the
rafters.

Figure 12

The two photographs below demonstrate the kind of force that acts on roof struts.
When a force acts like this, it is called a compressive force.

A force that is able to stretch or pull something

apart is called a tensile force.
A force that is able to compress or squash Figure 13: Compressive
something is called a compressive force. forces acting on beams

Torsion and shear force

1. Roll a sheet of paper into a tube and

twist it like the person in the photograph
is twisting the towel. By doing this you
apply a torsion force on the paper tube.

Figure 14

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 2. Press your two hands together tightly
as shown in this photograph. Then rub
them against each other.

Figure 15

If you put a piece of clay between your hands while you do this, the shape of the
clay will change. The force applied by your rubbing hands is called shear force.

Figure 16

Figure 17 shows two

pieces of wood joined
with a bolt. If the two
pieces of wood are
pulled apart or pushed
together, a shear force
will act on the bolt. This
can cause the bolt to
bend or even to crack. A
thicker bolt will resist a
shear force better.

Figure 17

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 9

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 Revise what you have learnt in Grade 7

1. In each case, say which kind of force is demonstrated in the picture.

Figure 18: Different types of forces

2. Will this roof structure work well?

Figure 19
Describe what could go wrong when roof plates or tiles are put on this roof
structure.

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 Trusses like the ones in the drawings below are called queen-post trusses. The two
vertical members are called queen-posts. They are shaded in Figure 20.

Figure 20

3. Figure 21 is a drawing of another type of queen-post truss. Shade the queen-

posts on the drawing.

Figure 21

4. On Figure 22, label members under compression with a “C” and members under
tension with a “T”. Do this for all the members except for the rafters.

Figure 22

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 11

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 1.3 Electricity pylons
Different designs of electricity pylons

1. Look at the pictures below and on the next two pages. What purposes do these
structures serve? Why do we built them?

Figure 23

2. Why do you think the pylon in

Figure 24 is designed the way it
is, and not in the way shown in
Figure 25?

Figure 24 Figure 25

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 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28

The pylons in Figures 26

and 28 are solid structures
made from concrete. All the
other pylons are steel frame
structures.

Figure 29

3. What do you think is indicated by the green parts of these drawings?

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 13

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 Making a structure rigid using only a little material

Forces that act on a rectangular frame can make it skew:

A B A B
You can also use the word
skew as a verb:
You can say the “forces skew
the frame”.
Or you can say that the
“forces are skewing the
frame”.
D C D C
Figure 30: Skewing of a rectangular frame

1. What happens to the lengths of the lines AC and BD when the frame skews? Go
measure it and find out!

To prevent a frame from skewing, a support can be A support inserted to

inserted to triangulate it: triangulate a frame can also be
called a brace.

case A case B

Figure 31: Simple triangulation of a frame

2. Compare what happens when you apply forces as in case A and case B.
(a) Why does the frame keep its shape in case A but changes shape in case B?
Hint: Think about the type of forces acting on the blue beam.

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 (b) How can you improve the design of the frame so that forces cannot make it skew?

Another way to prevent a frame from skewing is to triangulate it twice, to make

a cross. One brace goes from the top left to the bottom right of the rectangle. The
other brace goes from the top right to the bottom left of the rectangle.
case A case B

Figure 32: Cross-bracing a frame

This is called cross-bracing. It is a special kind of triangulation. With cross-bracing,

the frame does not skew when forces are applied as in case A or case B.
3. Compare the frame design in Figure 31 with the one in Figure 32.
(a) Can you use steel cables instead of beams for the braces in both of these
frame designs? Explain your answer.

(b) If you use steel beams as braces for both frame designs, do you have to use
the same thickness beams in both designs? Or can you save material and
use thinner braces in one of the designs?

CHAPTER 1: ROOFS AND PYLONS 15

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 How to make a tower resist twisting
The structure of a tower should resist changing shape. Two different ways of
changing shape are shown below.

Figure 33: Skewing Figure 34: Twisting

Using triangulation or cross-bracing on the outside of a frame helps the frame to

resist skewing. But it does not prevent it from twisting, as shown in Figure 34.
Twisting happens when torsion forces act on a structure, as shown by the red
arrows in Figure 34. To prevent a tower structure from twisting, you can use cross-
bracing inside the frame structure. The photos below show how a frame structure
can be built with cross-bracing on the inside and on the outside. The cross-bracing
on the inside is in red, and the cross-bracing on the outside is in dark blue.

Figure 35: Internal cross-bracing

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 Chapter 2
Buildings and bridges

In this chapter, you will learn about bridges and other structures that span over spaces. You will learn
about different types of bridges, and different ways of making bridges stable and strong.

2.1 Windows and tables ........................................................................................................ 20

2.2 Different types of bridges ................................................................................................ 24
2.3 Making structures strong enough ..................................................................................... 28

You will need corrugated cardboard and a pair of scissors to do the work in this chapter. You will also
need some sticky tape.

Figure 1: How can the builders lay bricks over the window?

TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 1 17

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 Figure 2: Different ways of supporting the wall above a window or a door.

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 Figure 3: What is this structure for? How is it supported?

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 19

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 2.1 Windows and tables

Figure 4
In the picture above one man is laying bricks above a window, but the window has
not been built in yet. What keeps the bricks from falling down?

The other man is inserting a lintel across the window opening. A lintel is a piece of
wood, steel or concrete that can support the wall above a window.

Lintels and objects like those in

Figure 5 are called beams.

Figure 5

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 Build a model table

Valencia is in a hurry and needs a few extra tables for a wedding function at
her house. She cannot afford to buy real tables, but she has many wide sheets of
wood that can be used for tabletops.

Figure 6

1. How can you use the sheet of wood to make tables, without having to cut the
wood? Make a rough sketch of your plan below.

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 21

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 Jaamiah has a plan. She cannot describe the
plan in detail, but she made this drawing to
show how her plan will work.

Figure 7
2. Valencia does not really understand Jaamiah’s drawing. Make a better drawing
that will show more clearly what Jaamiah’s tables will look like. You only need
to make a quick freehand sketch to show what the table will look like.

To understand how Jaamiah’s table will work and to test if it will work well, you
can build a small model of the table. Use corrugated cardboard to do this.
You will need three pieces of corrugated cardboard, each about 20 cm long
and 10 cm wide. Decide how you will cut the pieces for the tabletop and the two
supports. You can cut them with the corrugations along the width, as shown in
Figure 8, or with the corrugations along the length, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 8: Corrugations along the width Figure 9: Corrugations

along the length

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 Build your model table and test it to see if it will
work well.

3. How should the corrugated cardboard be cut to

make the strongest top for your table: with the
corrugations along the width or along the length?
Figure 10

4. Show on the drawing in Figure 11 in which

direction the corrugations should go to make
the strongest supports for your table.

Figure 11
Now think of ways to make the table stronger
so that it can support bigger loads. The table
in Figure 12 is not strong enough to support
its load without bending.
Suppose you have another sheet of
corrugated cardboard with which you can
make the table stronger. You can add the Figure 12
sheet as a second table top, as shown in
Figure 13. Or you can cut the extra sheet
in two pieces and make another A-frame
support for the middle of the table, as shown
in Figure 14.

5. Which way of using the extra sheet will

help the most to make the table stronger: Figure 13
the way shown in Figure 13, or the way
shown in Figure 14?

Figure 14

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 23

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 2.2 Different types of bridges

A B

Figure 15

Investigate bridges

Look at Figure 15. A bridge needs to be built so that people can cross a river. The
distance from point A to point B above is about 30 metres.

1. Make a drawing on Figure 15 to show what the bridge could look like.
2. Look at your drawing. In what way will the bridge be supported so that it will
not bend when a heavy truck passes over it?

3. What materials do you think should be used to make the bridge?

4. How wide should the bridge be?

5. How many cars can be on the bridge at the same time?

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 A beam-and-column bridge

An arch bridge

A truss bridge

A suspension bridge

A cantilever bridge

A cable-stay bridge of the fan type A cable-stay bridge of the harp type

Figure 16: Different types of bridges

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 25

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 You can easily make a small suspension
bridge between two desks with sticky
tape. When you do this, you use the tapes
as cables.

You can put strips of cardboard across the

two cables to form a deck for the bridge. Figure 17
6. Do you think this suspension bridge
in Figure 17 will be strong enough to
support a small bird walking on it?

Figure 18

You can also easily build a small cantilever bridge between two desks. Put two
pieces of corrugated cardboard on the desks, like the blue objects on the drawing
below. Put an object like a book on one end of each cardboard sheet, so that they
will not fall down.

Figure 19

You now almost have a bridge, but there is still a gap.

7. How can you complete the cantilever bridge without moving the cardboard
sheets or the desks closer together?

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 In a suspension bridge, the cables are anchored on the two sides, the same way
you pasted your sticky tape strips on two desktops. In most suspension bridges,
the deck hangs from the cables. We can also say the deck is suspended from the
cables.

Figure 20
Step A
In a cable-stayed bridge the deck is also
suspended from the cables, but the cables
are anchored on support columns, not
on the two sides of the bridge. To make a
simple model of a cable-stay bridge, you
can paste some pieces of string to a sheet
of corrugated cardboard.

Step B
Turn the cardboard around so that the
strings are at the bottom.

Step C
Pick up and hold all the string ends in one
hand.

Figure 21

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 27

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 2.3 Making structures strong enough
Investigate what could go wrong in structures

1. Do you think it will work well to use a sheet of

window glass for a tabletop?

Figure 22: A table with a glass top

A glass top can easily crack or break, or fracture, when heavy objects are placed on
it. There are also other things that could go wrong with structures.
2. What material was used to make the legs of the chair you are sitting on?

3. Why will it not work to use rubber pipes to make the legs of a chair?

Tom made this plan for a model table with a round top.
His plan is to make three bottles stand on their small
ends, with a round disk of cardboard on top of them.

4. Explain why this will not work well. Figure 23: A table with a round
top

The following are examples of ways in which structures, like bridges or buildings,
or parts of bridges or buildings, could fail to work.
Some parts, or members, of the structure can
fracture, or break apart.
Some parts, or members, of the structure can bend.
Structures or parts of structures can topple over.

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 5. The pictures below show different ways that bridges can fail. Describe what went
wrong in each of the three cases, and how it could be prevented from happening again.

Figure 24

Figure 25

Figure 26

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 29

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 6. A design for a small table is shown here.
In what ways could this table fail to work?

Figure 27

7. The pictures on the opposite page show a suspension bridge and an arch
bridge.
In a suspension bridge, the deck of the bridge hangs from the cables that carry
the load. Explain in what way an arch bridge is different from a suspension
bridge.

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 Figure 28

Figure 29

CHAPTER 2: BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES 31

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 Homework: What have you learnt?

1. Where are lintels used in houses, and what are their purposes?

2. Can arches be used instead of lintels when houses are designed and built?
Make a freehand sketch to illustrate your answer.

3. What is the difference between a beam-and-column bridge and an arch bridge?

4. When will you use an arch bridge instead of a beam-and-column bridge.

Next week

In the next two chapters, you will make more sketches and learn new drawing
techniques.

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 Chapter 3
Flat and isometric
working drawings
In this chapter you will learn about an important way to develop and communicate your ideas in
Technology. You will start drawing freehand sketches. Then you will learn about drawing one face of
an object in two dimensions. Finally, you will learn how to draw an object showing three dimensions.

3.1 Line types and scale drawing .......................................................................................... 36

3.2 Single view flat 2D drawing ............................................................................................. 40
3.3 Isometric drawing ........................................................................................................... 42

Figure 1

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 Figure 2

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 Figure 3

CHAPTER 3: FLAT AND ISOMETRIC WORKING DRAWINGS 35

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 3.1 Line types and scale drawing
Even the easiest of building projects needs to be designed first. To do this, someone
has to be able to draw the structure that is planned. Very few people are able to
make something without having drawn it first. So let us have a look at the basic
principles of drawing.

Different lines for different purposes

Construction lines
Construction lines are normally drawn to begin to make a drawing. They are feint,
thin lines that will later be replaced by the outlines.
Example:

Figure 4
Outlines
1. These lines are also referred to as solid lines. They are slightly thicker and
darker than construction lines.
Example:

Figure 5

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 Hidden detail
These lines are also known as hidden lines. These are lines you can’t see when
looking at the object. They are the same thickness as outlines but are broken.

Figure 6

Centre lines
These lines show where the centre of a symmetrical object is, for example a circle.
These lines are also called chain dash-dot lines.
When you need to drill a hole in an object, a centre line is useful because it
shows you exactly where you should put the tip of the drill.

Figure 7 Figure 8

The symbol  is used to indicate the diameter of a circle. The diameter is written
at the end of an arrow that points to the centre of the circle.

CHAPTER 3: FLAT AND ISOMETRIC 37

WORKING DRAWINGS

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 Drawing to scale

It is not always possible to draw something according to its actual size in real life,
because you might not be able to fit it onto the paper you use. So you need to be
able draw something to a different scale. But how does this work?
• Scale 1:1 This is full scale and means that a centimetre in your drawing shows
a centimetre in real life.
• Scale 1:2 This means that a centimetre in your drawing shows two centimetres
in real life.
The drawing below shows the same object drawn to different scales.
Measure the bottom line on the first and second drawings, to check that the
second drawing is really to a scale 1:2.

Figure 9

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 Look at the drawing of an Scale 1:10
object on the right.

Figure 10

1. Redraw this object to a scale of 1:5. Use a ruler to make this drawing and all the
other drawings in this chapter. Use a compass to draw the circle.
• Show dimensions.
• Show the centre lines of the circle.
• Show the scale.

CHAPTER 3: FLAT AND ISOMETRIC 39

WORKING DRAWINGS

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 3.2 Single view flat 2D drawing
In the drawings that you made in
the previous lesson, you showed
the front, the side and the top of
objects. Now you will make some
drawings where you only show the
front of an object. The front of the
block in Figure 11 is red.
1. The lady only sees the red part
of the block. Make a sketch of
the red part on the grid below.

Figure 11

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 2. Make a 1:10 scale drawing of the front part of this object.
• Show hidden lines.
• Show dimensions.
• Show the scale.
Scale 1:15

Figure 12

If you have time left at the end of this lesson, start reading about isometric
drawing on the next page.

CHAPTER 3: FLAT AND ISOMETRIC 41

WORKING DRAWINGS

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 3.3 Isometric drawing
The differences between a 3D oblique drawing and an isometric drawing are
demonstrated in the examples below. Both drawings are of the same object.

Figure 13: Oblique view

Figure 14: Isometric drawing

The oblique drawing shows the true lengths of lines BC The word “isometric” comes
and CD, but not the true length of AB. from the words “iso” and
The isometric drawing shows the true lengths of the “metric”.
lines AB, BC and CD. “Iso” means “the same”,
and “metric” means
“measurement”.

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 1. Make an isometric
drawing of the chalk
box on the right on
the isometric grid.
Use a scale of 1:2.
• Show hidden lines.
• Show dimensions.
• Show the scale.

Figure 15

CHAPTER 3: FLAT AND ISOMETRIC 43

WORKING DRAWINGS

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 2. Make an isometric drawing
Scale 1:25
of the piano on the right on
the isometric grid. Use a
scale of 1:25.
• Show hidden lines.
• Show dimensions.
• Show the scale.

Figure 16

Next week

In the next chapter, you will learn to make drawings that show what you really
see. Those drawings are artistic drawings, and they use some special techniques
that you will learn.

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 Chapter 4
Perspective drawing

4.1 Double vanishing point drawing ........................................................................................ 47

4.2 A more difficult double vanishing point perspective drawing ............................................... 50
4.3 Make drawings look more realistic using shading and texture ............................................. 52

Figure 1: Everything we see around us is in perspective.

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 Figure 2: Where are the vanishing points for each box?

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 4.1 Double vanishing point perspective drawing
You were introduced to single vanishing point perspective in Grade 7. You will now
go a bit further and look at double vanishing point perspective. Perspective views
are often used by artists to sketch an object to try to represent what the human
eye really sees.
If you stand looking out over the ocean, a big dam or a lat land area, you will
see a horizontal line where the sky and water or land meet. This is known as the
horizon.
To make a perspective drawing, you need to think of where the horizon line
could be on your drawing.
In Grade 7 you learnt how to draw a box in single vanishing point perspective, as
shown by the drawing below.

Vanishing Point Horizon Line (HL)

Construction lines,
also known as the
visual rays

Front View
Ground Plane

Figure 3

CHAPTER
CHAPTER4:4: PERSPECTIVE
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
DRAWING 47

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 Two-point perspective
In a double vanishing point perspective drawing there are two vanishing points on the
horizon line. On page 46 there is a double vanishing point perspective drawing of a box.

1. (a) To make a double vanishing point perspective drawing of a box, you can start by
drawing a horizon line and one vertical edge of the box as shown below.
(b) Then draw construction lines from the top and bottom of the vertical edge
to two vanishing points on the horizon line.

Vanishing Point 1 Vanishing Point 2

Ground Plane

Figure 4
2. (a) Once you have done this, you have to mark off another edge of the block on
the construction lines as indicated in Figure 5 at A and B.
(b) From points A and B, draw construction lines to vanishing point 2.

Vanishing Point 1 (HL) Vanishing Point 2

Ground Plane

Figure 5

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 3. (a) Now mark off another edge of the block on the construction lines going to
vanishing point 2 at C and D as in Figure 6.
(b) Draw construction lines from points C and D to vanishing point 1.

Vanishing Point 1 (HL) Vanishing Point 2

D
A

C
B

Ground Plane

Figure 6
4. Make your own double vanishing point perspective drawing of a block below.
Draw in your solid lines, as indicated on the block drawing on page 46.

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 4.2 A more difficult double vanishing point perspective
drawing
You will now make a double vanishing point perspective drawing of a block with a
piece that is cut out, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7

1. It is best to draw the block first, without the cut-out, as shown below.

Figure 8

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 2. Then mark the cut-out, as shown below.

Figure 9
3. Make and complete your own double vanishing point perspective drawing of
the object in Figure 7. Draw in solid lines where necessary.

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 4.3 Make drawings look more realistic using shading and
texture
When you draw a picture of an object, you can use perspective to make the picture
look more life-like or real.
When you’ve drawn your object in perspective, you can make it look even
better by using shading. Shading is a way of showing that something is a three-
dimensional shape, instead of a two-dimensional shape.
Compare Figures 10a and 10b, as an example.

Figure 10a: a circle (two-dimensional) Figure 10b: a sphere (three-dimensional)

The basic principle of shading is light and shadow, as you can see in Figure 11. The
position of a light source relative to an object determines which parts of an object
are lighter and which parts darker.

Figure 11: The position of light shining on the cube determines which parts will be darker or lighter. The
position of the light on these cubes is shown by the red arrows.

There are a number of techniques that you can use to shade an object, regardless
of the drawing tool you are using, such as a pen, pencil, coloured pencil, crayon,
charcoal, brush or ink.

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 Hatching
Hatching means that you draw more-or-less parallel lines on the part of the object
you want to be in shadow. The closer your lines are together, the darker you can
make the shadow. Hatching works well with any drawing tool that can make lines.

Figure 12: Different shades created by hatching

Cross-hatching
Cross-hatching is like hatching, except that you draw 2 sets of lines, crossing each
other. Cross-hatching also works well with any drawing tool that can make lines.

Figure 13: Different shades created by cross-hatching

Dots
Instead of drawing lines, you can use your pen, pencil or any other drawing tool to
make dots for shading. The closer the dots are together, the darker the shade will be.

Figure 14: Different shades created by dots

Ink washes
You can dilute ink with water to create different shades. A lot of water and a bit of
ink will make a lighter shade and a lot of ink with a bit of water will make a darker
shade. Once you’ve mixed the ink and water, use a brush to apply the ink. If you
don’t have ink, you can use watercolour paint in the same way.

Figure 15: Different shades created by an ink wash and a brush

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 Here are examples of basic forms that have been shaded using these different
techniques:

Figure 16: A sphere

Figure 17: A cube

Figure 18: A cylinder

Figure 19: A cone

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 Below is a much more complex shape that has been drawn by an artist using a
combination of shading techniques:

Figure 20: Portrait of a man in a suit

Drawing exercises

1. Create 5 different shades in the block below using one of the shading
techniques you’ve learnt about.

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 2. Figure 21 is a drawing that consists of
lines and shading. It shows a tree, a
house and a car, drawn by combining
different basic shapes
Shade the copy of this drawing below.
You can use any of the shading
techniques you’ve learnt about in
this chapter.

Figure 21

Next week

In the next three chapters, you will learn about different ways to change the way
that things move, for example using gears and cranks.

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 Chapter 5
Wedges, wheels and gears

In this chapter you will learn how wedges, inclined planes, wheels and gears can change the direction
and size of a force. These things are all called simple mechanisms. Different simple mechanisms can
be used in combination with one another to create more complicated machines, like bicycles or cars.

5.1 Inclined planes and wedges .............................................................................................. 59

5.2 Wheels ........................................................................................................................... 62
5.3 Gears ............................................................................................................................. 65

steep
moderate incline
incline

gear with 22 teeth

gear with 24 teeth gear with 32 teeth
gear with 32 teeth
Figure 1: You use different combinations of gears on a bicycle when you cycle up a moderate slope or a
steep slope. Why?

Words to talk about hills and roads going upwards

When a road is flat, you say that it is level.
When a road goes up or down, you say that it has a slope, a gradient, or an incline.
When a road goes slightly upwards, you say it has a gentle incline.
When a road rises more quickly, you say that it has a moderate incline.
When a road rises up sharply, you say that it has a steep incline.

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 Figure 2: Which path will you take up the
mountain? Which path will take the longest?

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 5.1 Inclined planes and wedges

Revision: Mechanical advantage

In Grade 7 you learnt how levers, pulleys and cranks Levers, pulleys and cranks
can help you to move things. To get an object to move, are different types of
you need to push it or pull it. A push or pull is called mechanisms. In this chapter,
a force. That force will make the object move over a you will learn about more types
distance. Force and distance are the two important of mechanisms.
things that are changed by a mechanism.
Some mechanisms change a small input force over a
large distance into a large output force over a small
distance. You can say that the mechanisms have a
mechanical advantage, but a distance disadvantage.
You get a mechanical advantage when a machine Figure 3: A pair of pliers that
makes it easier to lift or move something. give a mechanical advantage.
Other mechanisms change a large input force over a
small distance, into a small output force over a large
distance. You can say that the mechanisms have a
mechanical disadvantage, but a distance advantage.
You get a distance advantage when a machine makes Figure 4: A pair of kitchen tongs
something move further. that give a distance advantage.
Whenever you look to see how a mechanism works,
try to understand what is happening to the input force and the output force.
Also try to understand what is happening to the input distance and the output
distance. A distance advantage is often also a speed advantage, because if
something moves further in the same time, it also moves faster.

Inclined planes
A road that goes up steeply can be called an inclined plane. The roof of a house
that goes up at an angle is also an inclined plane.

Helping a boy in a wheelchair to get up a step

When people design buildings with steps,
they also have to think about old people or
people in wheelchairs. These people will
struggle to get up steps, like the boy in the
wheelchair in Figure 5.

Figure 5

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 To help the boy, you can build a ramp to make a A ramp is also an inclined
smooth path between the low place on the ground plane.
and the higher place. Two different designs of a ramp
are shown below.
ramp A ramp B

Figure 6 Figure 7

1. Which design will be the easiest for the boy to get from the ground to the
higher place, and why? Hint: read the part on “Words to talk about hills and
roads going upwards” at the bottom of page 57.

2. Will the boy travel the same distance up both ramps A and B, or will he travel a
longer distance on one of the ramps? If yes, which one?

3. Will the force with which the boy has to turn the wheels be the same on both
ramps, or will it be greater on one of the ramps? If yes, which one?

4. Use the following words to write a few sentences to explain why it is easier for
the boy to go up the one ramp than the other:
input force, output force, input distance, and output distance.

5. Which ramp gives the boy the greatest mechanical advantage?

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 Wedges
Axes and knives are wedges. Wedges change a small input force into a larger
output force. They use a large input distance to give a small output distance.

Why does an axe make it easier to split wood?

input force
output distance

output force

input distance
Figure 8: The wedge shape of the head of an axe makes it easier to cut wood.

When you cut wood with a wedge-shaped axe, a large input distance downwards
causes a small output distance sideways.

1. Is the input force greater or smaller than the output force? Or are they the same?

2. Does an axe give a mechanical advantage or a distance advantage?

The drawing on the right shows how

wedges can be used to make a house level.
If a house is not level, and you put a ball on
the floor, the ball will roll to the lowest side
or corner of the house.

Figure 9: Wedges can be used to lift up

very heavy objects, even houses!

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 5.2 Wheels
What is special about wheels? They can roll over a
surface to cover a distance, just like a ball. When The words “roll” and “rotate”
a wheel on the ground turns, it moves forward in both come from the same old
a specific direction. So a wheel changes a turning Latin word “rota”. “Rotational
or rotational movement into a straight or linear movement” means a rolling or
movement. circular movement.
Without wheels, the only way to move objects over The word “linear” comes
the ground or another surface would be to drag them from the word “line”. “Linear
across the surface. Perhaps you have moved a heavy movement” means movement
cupboard or even a fridge or a stove over a loor. It in a straight line.
is hard work! But if there were wheels underneath
the heavy object, it would be much easier to move it, Friction is the resistance force
because the friction would be less. that makes it hard to slide
something along a surface.

Figure 10 Figure 11

Imagine you are moving a heavy cupboard. Fortunately, the cupboard stands on
wheels, like a shopping trolley. When you push the cupboard, the wheels turn
and the cupboard moves forward. So your linear pushing movement is changed
into the rotational movement of the wheels, which is changed into the linear
movement of the cupboard. This is why you say that a wheel is a mechanism
that changes the direction of movement. It changes the movement from linear
movement, to rotational movement, and back into linear movement.

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 The wheels under the cupboard were freely turning, like the front wheel of a
bicycle. You call that a free-running wheel.
The back wheel of a bicycle does not turn freely. It turns because the chain is
pulling the gear on the back wheel to turn. You call that a driven wheel.

Figure 12: The back wheel of a bicycle is driven by the gear and chain mechanism

A wheel that is driven gives a distance advantage. The

drawings on the right and below use a bicycle as an
example to explain this.
The chain goes around a gear on the back wheel.
That gear has a circumference of 30 cm. So if the chain
pulls forward by 30 cm, then the gear will rotate once.
• When the gear rotates once, the wheel rotates once.
• The wheel has a circumference of 207 cm. If the
wheel rotates once, the bicycles moves forward by
207 cm.
• Therefore, when you pull the chain forward by
30 cm, the bicycle moves forward by 207 cm. That is
why a driven wheel gives a distance advantage.

Figure 13: A wheel gives a distance advantage

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 For a wheel to turn, it has to turn around something that is at the centre of it. This
is called the axle. An axle is for a wheel what a pivot or fulcrum is for a lever.
The inside of the wheel rubs on the axle, so there is some friction that tries to
stop the wheel from turning. This friction is very small because:
• The distance moved at the outside of the wheel
is greater than the distance moved at the axle.
You can see this on Figure 14, where the distance
moved at the outside of the wheel is shown in blue,
and the distance moved at the axle is shown in red.
For the same forwards movement, a bigger wheel
will give a smaller movement at the axle. Therefore
big wheels give less rubbing or friction at the axle.
• Most wheels have a very smooth oiled surface or
bearings between the axle and the wheel, to reduce
Figure 14
the friction even more.

Group discussion

Work in groups of three or four. Write down your answers.

1. Why are some wheels small and others big?

Hint: think of the advantages and disadvantages of small wheels and of big
wheels. Also think of the weight and cost of the wheels.

2. A motor car, a 4 × 4 bakkie, a shopping trolley, and a skateboard each have four
wheels. For each one of these examples, which wheels are driven and which are
free-running?

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 5.3 Gears
Things can turn in two directions

The diagram below shows two levers that are mounted on vertical supports. The
levers can turn around axles that are shown with round black dots.

Figure 15

1. If you push the black end of the lever on the left down,
(a) in what direction will the red end of the lever move, and

(b) in what direction will the blue end of the lever on the right move?

2. If you push the black end of the lever

on the left down, will the lever
turn clockwise like this,

or anti-clockwise like this?

Figure 16: To talk about the

direction that something moves
over a distance, you use the
3. If you turn the lever on the left anti-clockwise, words forwards, backwards, left,
in which direction will the lever on the right turn? right, up and down. But what if
something does not move to
anywhere else, but turns while it
stays in the same position? Then
you talk about something turning
like the hands or arrows of a
clock.

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 Gears are very similar to levers. Look at the drawings below.

A B C

Figure 17: You can think of a gear as if it is made up of many levers.

Imagine you attach many levers to a round disc as in drawing A. If you then add
material to make the ends of the levers into the shapes of gear teeth, you will have
a gear, as shown by drawing B.
The type of gear shown in drawing C is called a spur gear. In Term 3 of this year
and in Grade 9 you will learn about other types of gears.

4. The red gear below is turned anti-clockwise, until the tooth with the black dot
reaches the arrow.
(a) Draw another arrow to show where the tooth with the blue dot will be when
the black dot reaches the arrow.
(b) Draw a small cross to show where the red dot will be when the black dot
reaches the arrow.

Figure 18

(c) In what direction will the yellow gear turn, when the red gear is turned
anti-clockwise?

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 5. (a) In what direction must the small
gear on the right be turned so that
the blue dot will move downwards
when you start to turn?

(b) If the small gear is turned

clockwise until the red dot is back
at the yellow arrow again, where
will the blue dot on the big gear
be? Make an arrow on the sketch to
show where it will be.
Figure 19

(c) If you turn the small gear by hand, will the big gear turn faster or slower
than the small gear? Explain your answer.

Spur gears work together in sets of two or more.

Any set of gears has an input gear and an output
gear.
The input gear is also called the driver gear, and
the output gear is called the driven gear.
If the small gear in Figure 19 is turned by hand then
the small gear is the input gear.

When the teeth of two gears touch so that the gears

turn together, you say that the two gears mesh.
Any two gears that mesh turn in opposite
directions. This is called counter-rotation.

6. If you want the driver gear and the driven gear to turn in the same direction the
two gears will not work. Can you make another plan?

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 Idler gears

The drawing below shows a set of three gears. The gear in the middle is called an
idler gear. Its purpose is to make the driven gear turn in the same direction than
the driver gear.

Figure 20: In a three gear set the input and output gears turn in the same direction.

1. Look at the system of gears in Figure 21. If the gear on the left is the driver gear,
will the driven gear turn faster or slower than the driver, or will it turn at the
same speed?

driver gear driven gear

Figure 21

When an idler gear is smaller than the other gears, as for example in Figure 21,
then it is made of harder material than the other gears. This is because the idler
gear will rotate more times than the other gears. Every time a gear turns the metal
rubs against the metal of the other gears, and a little bit of the metal rubs away.
Have a look at the soles of your shoes. The same thing happens to them.

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 Gear ratios

1. Look at the gears on the right. The big gear

is the input gear, and the small gear is the
output gear.
Each gear is fixed to an axle, and the axle
drives a fan. The speed with which the fan
turns is called the rotational speed of the
axle.
(a) Will the fan on the big gear rotate faster
or slower than the fan on the small
gear, or will it rotate equally fast?
Figure 22

(b) Will the force with which you turn the axle of the big input gear be smaller
or bigger than the turning force on the axle of the small output gear?

A gear system can change a fast rotational speed

Gear ratio and speed ratio is
into a slower one, or a slow rotational speed into the same thing. It can also be
a faster one. The gear ratio is equal to the speed called “velocity ratio”.
of rotation of the input gear divided by the speed
of rotation of the output gear.
The speed of rotation of each gear is “inversely proportional” to the number of
teeth of the gear. Therefore the gear ratio can be calculated by dividing the number
of teeth on the output gear by the number of teeth on the input gear.
In Figure 22 the big input gear has 40 teeth and the output gear has 20 teeth. So
this gear system has a gear ratio of 20 ÷ 40 = ½. You can also write it as the ratio
1:2. It means that the input gear turns at half the speed of the output gear.
A gear system also changes the turning force on the
input axle into a different turning force on the output Turning force is also called
axle. If the rotational speed of the output axle is faster, torque.
the turning force on the output axle will be smaller.
For the gear system in Figure 22, the output axle exerts half the turning force of
the input axle.
rotational speed of input axle turning force on output axle
gear ratio = =
rotational speed of output axle turning force on input axle
number of teeth on output gear
=
number of teeth on input gear

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 Sometimes gears do not touch each other, but are rather connected by a chain, as
on a bicycle. But the gear ratios still work in the same way.
On the left in Figure 23 are all the different gear choices at the front of a bicycle,
between the pedals. On the right of Figure 23 are all the different gear choices at
the back of this bicycle, on the back wheel. The number of teeth of each gear is
written inside the gear.
front back

Figure 23: Gear choices on a bicycle

2. (a) What is the biggest gear ratio that you can choose on this bicycle? Choose
the front and the back gears that you will use, and then calculate the gear
ratio.

(b) What combination of the front gear and the back gear will you choose to a
go up a very steep hill?

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 Chapter 6
Mechanisms that change
the type of movement
In the previous chapter you learnt how mechanisms such as wedges, inclined planes, wheels and
gears can change the direction, the distance and the force of a movement. For wedges and inclined
plains, the movement was in straight lines. For wheels and gears, the movement was in circles, in
other words, rotational movement.
In this chapter you will learn about another type of movement, that The word “reciprocate” comes
is in a straight line, but does not keep moving forward on that line. from the old Latin words “re”
Instead, the movement is backwards and forwards or up and down and “pro”. “Re” means back
along the line. When you cut bread with a knife, or you cut wood and “pro” means forward.
with a saw, you make such a movement. This type of movement is
called reciprocating movement.
You will learn about mechanisms that change rotational movement into reciprocating movement, or
reciprocating movement into rotational movement.

6.1 The crank-and-slider mechanism ....................................................................................... 74

6.2 The cam-and-follower mechanism ..................................................................................... 77
6.3 A car engine: using a crankshaft and a camshaft ............................................................... 81

Figure 2: A wind
pump converts
a rotating
movement into
Figure 1: When you saw wood you make a a reciprocating
reciprocating movement. movement.

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 Figure 3: A steam driven locomotive uses a crank-and-slider mechanism to turn the wheels.

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 6.1 The crank-and-slider mechanism

Revision: A crank-and-spool mechanism

You learnt about cranks in Term 3 of Grade 7. There a crank was used to turn a
wheel called a spool on which rope was rolled up. The crank was part of a bigger
mechanism that is called a crank-and-spool mechanism or a winch. The crank can
be turned one way to pull in the rope, and the other way to let it out.

When a crank is part of a winch,

it changes a big rotational
movement with a small force into
a small rotational movement with
a big force. The longer the crank
arm is, the more mechanical
advantage it gives.

Some winches also use gears to

give an even bigger mechanical
advantage.
Figure 4: A simple hand-powered winch used to lift a
bucket of water

Changing rotational movement into reciprocal movement

To change rotational movement into reciprocal movement, a crank is used in a
different way, as shown by the pictures on the next page. A slider is attached to
the crank by a connecting rod. The slider is normally round, and fits into a round
hole. It can only move sideways, not up or down.
There is a pivot between the crank and the connecting rod, and another pivot
between the connecting rod and the slider. Both pivots change position when the
mechanism is working. The crank turns around an axle. The axle never changes
position, it just turns.
The crank can be ixed to a wheel, to make the wheel turn with it. Or the crank
can be part of the wheel.
The way the crank works depends only on the
distance between the centre of the axle and the
centre of the pivot between the crank and the push
rod. This distance is called the crank throw. This is
shown on Figure 5.

The longer the crank throw is, the greater the mechanical advantage of the crank
will be. The shape of the crank does not matter.

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 slider Step 1
pivots
axle
cra ow
thr

connecting rod
nk

Step 2
Figure 5: The different parts of a crank-and-slider
mechanism

Thinking about the pictures

Step 3
The different steps in the operation of a
crank-and-slider mechanism are
shown in the pictures on the right, in Figure 6.
1. How long is the crank throw in the
mechanism in Figure 6?
Step 4

2. How far is the movement of the slider

furthest position
from the furthest position on the left to
to the left
the furthest position on the right? This can
be called the “total sideways movement”. Step 5

3. If the crank throw was twice as long, how

long would the total sideways movement
Step 6
of the slider be?

4. Will the slider ever stand still while the

crank is rotating?
Step 7

furthest position
to the right
Figure 6: Different steps during the
operation of a crank-and-slider mechanism

CHAPTER 6: MECHANISMS THAT CHANGE 75

THE TYPE OF MOVEMENT

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 The crank-and-slider mechanism cool low pressure
steam out
inside a steam engine
In a steam locomotive a coal fire is used to
boil water. The water changes into very hot
steam that has a high pressure. Imagine hot high pressure
you are blowing up a balloon. You have to steam in
create a high pressure of air in your mouth
to make the balloon bigger. The balloon
becomes bigger because the high pressure
air moves the sides of the balloon outwards.
steam expands and
Steam at a high pressure can also move
cools down
things.

steam expands and

cools down

Figure 7

The pictures on the right show how the

movement created by high pressure steam is
changed into the rotation of a wheel.
The hot high pressure steam is shown in red.
When the steam expands, it also cools down.
The cooler steam is shown in purple, and at
the end it is shown in blue.
In an engine, the slider is called a piston,
and the hole inside which the piston moves is
called the cylinder.
A steam engine uses valves to let in the hot
steam on the right or the left of the cylinder.
The valves have to open and close at the right
times. Is there some mechanism that can do
this? This is what you will learn about in the
Figure 8: How a steam engine works
next lesson.

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 Look again at Figures 6 and 8.
A crank-and-slider mechanism can be used to
change rotational movement into reciprocal
movement, or it can be used to change reciprocal
movement into rotational movement. In other
words, if you move the crank, then the slider will
also move. And if you move the slider, the crank will
also move.

6.2 The cam-and-follower mechanism

A cam is a wheel that is not round, or it is a round wheel that turns around an axle
that is not at the centre of the wheel.
A cam is used with a follower. The rotational movement of the cam is changed
into the reciprocating movement of the follower. The follower is in a sleeve, so that
it can move in one direction only.
A cam is driven by an axle, so that when the axle
Do you remember the
rotates, the cam rotates. When the cam rotates, the difference between a driven
follower slides on the cam. The position of the follower wheel and a free-turning wheel
depends on the angle at which the cam is rotated. about which you learnt in the
A cam and follower changes the rotating movement previous chapter?
of the cam into the reciprocating movement of the
follower.

follower

sleeve

driven
axle
pear-shaped snail cam eccentric cam
cam

Figure 9: The different parts of a crank-and-slider mechanism, and different shapes of cams

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 Investigate how a cam can be used to open and close valves

Figure 10 shows how the rotation of a cam changes the position of a valve in an
engine. The figure continues on the next page. Study this figure carefully before
you answer the following questions.

Figure 10:
The movement of
a valve as a cam
rotates

rotation of starting 1 eight of a 2 eights of a 3 eights of a

cam position cam rotation cam rotation cam rotation
rotation of
0° 45° 90° 135°
cam in degrees
distance that
0 2 mm
valve is open

1. Complete the table above to show how far the valve is open at different
positions of the cam in Figure 10. Measure the distance that the valve is open.

2. Which of the pictures above show the valve at its highest position?

3. Which picture shows the valve at its lowest position?

Figure 10 above shows different positions of a cam and a valve as the cam is
rotating. This is the way that the valves in most engines are opened and closed at
the correct times.

A cam can convert rotational to reciprocal

movement, but not the other way round

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 4 eights of a 5 eights of a 6 eights of a 7 eights of a one full cam
cam rotation cam rotation cam rotation cam rotation rotation

180° 225° 270° 315° 360°

The reciprocating movement created by a snail cam

9

1. The drawing on the right uses red arrows to show 8

the distance between the centre and the edge of 1
a snail cam at different angles of rotation. Each 2
arrow is rotated with 45° clockwise from the
previous arrow. 7 3

Measure the different arrows, from the shortest to

the longest and fill in your measurements in the 4
6
table below. 5
Figure 11: A snail cam
position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
length

2. Is there a pattern in the lengths of the arrows? How does the pattern work?

3. What happens between position 9 and position 1?

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 Something to read at home: another type of cam

Some cams are a round wheel, but they do not rotate

around the centre of the wheel. These cams are called
eccentric cams. They are used on many modern bicycles.
During a bicycle race, the cyclists sometimes get flat or
punctured tyres. They then have to take the wheel off to
remove the tyre before they can fix the tyre. This takes a
lot of time, and they’ll struggle to catch up with the other
cyclists again.
Many years ago, engineers designed a mechanism with
which you can quickly take a wheel off a bicycle, without
using any tools. This is called a “quick release” mechanism.
Today, more expensive bicycles use quick release
mechanisms on their wheels. They also use a quick release
mechanism to make it quick and easy to change the height
of the saddle. The photos below and on the right show how
a quick release mechanism uses an eccentric cam to lock
the saddle at the correct height.

seat
post
quick-release
mechanism
frame

Figure 12: A quick-release mechanism is used to clamp the

seat post to the frame of this bicycle.

Figure 13: The sides of the quick

release mechanism move or clamp
closer together as the eccentric cam
is turned by the handle.

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 6.3 A car engine: using a crankshaft and a camshaft

The different steps in the rotation of a four-stroke petrol engine

Figure 14 shows how a one-cylinder petrol engine works.

Intake stroke: Compression Combustion stroke: Exhaust stroke: The

A mixture of air stroke: The mixture The spark plug exhaust gases are
and petrol gas is of air and petrol is ignites the mixture pushed out when
sucked into the compressed when of air and petrol so the piston moves
cylinder when the piston moves that it explodes. This upwards.
the piston moves upwards. pushes the piston
downwards. downwards.
outlet inlet outlet inlet outlet inlet outlet inlet
valve valve valve valve valve valve valve valve
closed open closed closed closed closed open closed

Figure 14

In a car engine, the cams are parts of camshafts that turn as the engine turns. You
do not need to understand everything about the engine in Figure 14, as long as you
can see that it is important that the inlet and outlet valves open and close at the
correct times.

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 camshafts

valves

piston

cylinder

cam belt

connecting
rod
crankshaft

Figure 15: The moving parts inside one cylinder of an engine

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 Draw an engine crankshaft

1. Make a three-dimensional artistic drawing of the crankshaft of a one-cylinder

engine. Use shading to make it more realistic. First make a rough drawing,
before you make your final neat drawing.
Hint: Look back at page 54 to see how you can use shading to make something
look round.

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 Next week

Next week you will start with a practical project to design and make a model of a
machine that can crush grain to make flour. This machine will change rotational
movement into reciprocating movement.

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 Chapter 7 mini-paT
Design and make a model
of a machine to crush grain
Over the next four weeks, you will design and make a model of a machine that can crush grains like
mielies or wheat to make meal or flour.

Week 1
Compare different designs and make your own design ...................................................... 88

Week 2
Draw your design and build the model .............................................................................. 94

Week 3
Make improvements to the model and draw an artistic perspective drawing of it ............... 104

Week 4
Present your model and drawings .................................................................................. 108

Assessment
Investigate:
Evaluate different designs that other people made ............................................................. [6]
Design brief, specifications and constraints ....................................................................... [6]
Design:
Design how to make the structure stronger ....................................................................... [8]
Decide what type of mechanism you will use ..................................................................... [4]
Make:
Build the basic structure and the mechanism in it ............................................................. [12]
Draw your design of parts to add to the model ................................................................ [12]
Make your improvement to the model ............................................................................. [10]
Draw an artistic drawing in perspective of your model ...................................................... [12]
[Total marks: 70]

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 Figure 1: How do mielies become maize meal?

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 Figure 2: Before machines were invented to grind or crush the mielie seeds, it took a lot of hard work
to make maize meal.

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 Week 1
Compare different designs and make your own design
Evaluate different designs that other people made (30 minutes)
This is individual work.
The drawings below show rough designs for grain crushers that other people
made. These designs are not complete, and there could be problems with them.
But there could be useful ideas that you may get from these designs.

design A

design B

lever

pestle

design C
Figure 3: Rough designs made by other people

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 Make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of the different designs. Think
about the following:
• How strong and stable is the structure?
You will be accessed
• What materials and tools do you need to make the structure? on the last two
• How easy will it be to make the structure? rows of the table,
• How hard and fast will the pestle hit the floor? on advantages and
• What is the mechanical advantage of the lever? disadvantages.

Design A Design B Design C

Strength and
stability of
structure

Materials and
tools needed

How easy to
make?

How hard and fast

will the pestle hit
the floor?

Mechanical
advantage of lever

Advantages

Disadvantages

Total [6]

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 Design brief, specifications and constraints (30 minutes)
Discuss this in teams of three or four. There should be at least one boy and one
girl in each group. Everyone has to write their own answers below.

1. Write the design brief. A design brief tells you what the problem is and who
will benefit from or use the solution. (1)

A machine to crush grain will usually be powered by an electrical motor that

provides rotational movement. You will not use an electrical motor in your
model, but will rather turn the handle of a crank by hand. This rotational
movement should be changed into a reciprocating movement so that the grain
will be crushed, like hitting it with a hammer.
The mechanisms that your model uses should be housed inside a strong and
stable structure.

2. Answer the following questions to identify the specifications for your design:
(a) What different mechanisms could make the grain crusher work? (1)

(b) What forces should the structure be able to withstand? (1)

3. Identify the constraints:

(a) How much time do I have to design and make the model? (1)

(b) What materials can I find easily to build the model? (1)

(c) What tools do I already have with which I can make the model? (1)

[Total marks: 6]

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 Design to make the structure stronger (45 minutes)
Work in your teams again, but make your own sketches and give your own
answers.
You will later be given instructions on how to build a structure such as the
one below. But there are problems with this structure. It is not stable enough to
withstand forces from the side. It can collapse or topple over.

Figure 4: A structure for a grain crusher that is not strong or stable enough to withstand forces acting on
its side.

Design something that you can add to the structure to prevent it from collapsing
or toppling over sideways. Look at Chapter 1 to help you.
1. Make a rough sketch below of your plan to strengthen the structure.
Each person in your team should make their own sketch of their own idea.
Add notes and labels to the sketch to explain your design. (4)

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 2. Compare the rough designs of everyone in your team. Then decide together on
what design you will use to strengthen the structure. Make a neat sketch of this
design in the space below. Add notes and labels to the sketch to explain the
design. (4)

[Total marks: 8]

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 Decide what type of mechanism you will use (15 minutes)
Look at the old method of crushing grain shown in
pestle
the drawing on the right. The hollow vessel holds
the grain seeds. The operator drops the heavy pole
into the vessel with a strong and quick movement.
This movement crushes the seeds into smaller
pieces.
The mechanism that you choose should also give
a strong and quick downwards movement of the
pestle.
You can use a crank-and-slider mechanism or one
of the shapes of cams below to change rotational
movement into reciprocating movement. You learnt
the names of these shapes of cams in Chapter 6.
You have to choose whether a crank-and-slider
mechanism or a cam-and-follower mechanism will
work best to crush the grain. If you choose a cam-
and-follower mechanism, you also have to choose
the shape of the cam. Figure 5

Figure 6: Different mechanisms that you can choose from to change rotational movement
into reciprocating movement

1. What mechanism did you choose, and why?

[Total marks: 4]

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 Week 2
Draw your design and build the model
Build the basic structure and the mechanism in it (60 minutes)
First build the structure and mechanism according to the plans and instructions
on the following pages. Add your own design for how to make the structure
stronger later.
The photo below shows what the model will look like before you make your changes.

lever
nail

pestle
follower
A-frame

wheel

wire handle and axle

support for axle

Figure 7

In the plans of the model, a wheel is used instead of a cam or a crank-and-slider

mechanism. Therefore the model will not work. Use a cam or a crank-and-slider
mechanism to make it work.
On the following pages there are drawings of the Corrugations are like tunnels
different parts that you have to cut out of corrugated between the two outer layers
cardboard. Trace the shapes onto cardboard before of the cardboard. Corrugated
you cut them out. Make sure the corrugations are in cardboard is stronger in the
the correct direction, as shown by the arrows on the one direction than in the other.
drawings.
You have to decide for yourself how many of each part you need to make. You
also have to decide where you will use spacers, and how many to use.

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 Each member of the team should build their own model.
Cut out this page to trace the shapes of the parts onto corrugated cardboard. Put
the page back into your book afterwards.

Figure 8: The parts of one of the two A-frames with its support for the axle.

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 Cut out this page to trace the shapes of the parts onto corrugated cardboard. Put
the page back in your book when you’re done.

Figure 10: Three different shapes of

cams to choose from

Figure 9: The parts of the lever, and the follower for the
cam that will be attached to it

Figure 11: Spacers to use on axles

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 The steps for building the model are shown on the next two pages.
How to attach the parts of your model
Use Prestik to attach the pieces of cardboard, so that you can take them apart if
you make a mistake or want to change something. After your project is completed
you may use glue or tape to make the model stronger.
Other materials that you will need Safety warning
For the axle of the cam or crank mechanism, use 1 mm Do not remove any copper
thick copper wire. This is easy to bend and you can cut wire from electrical wiring.
it with scissors. If you do not have copper wire, you can If you do this, you can be
use thin steel wire. But you will need a pair of pliers to shocked to death, and other
bend and cut that. people won’t be able to use
electricity before the wires are
Use a nail or a piece of wire for the axle on which
fixed. You can also go to jail
the lever swivels.
for stealing electrical wire.
Unwanted sideways movement on an axle
The model shown in the photos below does not work well because the lever can
move sideways on its axle. If this happens the follower could fall off the cam.

follower
lever

axle

Figure 13

Mark allocation
Your teacher will look at the following to assess your model:
• You followed the plans and instructions successfully. (4)
• You made a mechanism to change the rotational movement of the
handle into the reciprocating movement of the pestle. (3)
• The parts that turn on axles cannot move sideways. (2)
• Your model works well. (3)

[Total marks: 12]

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 spacer

cut wire

Figure 12: Different steps of building the model

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 Draw your design of parts to add to the model (60 minutes)
This is individual work.
Figure 4 on page 91 shows that the model you have made so far is not stable
enough to withstand forces acting on its side. It can collapse or topple over. You
want to design members to add to the structure so that this cannot happen.

Make: 2D working drawing

1. Make a working drawing in 2D of what you will add to the structure so that it
cannot collapse or topple over.
Decide for yourself what the scale should be so that the drawing will fit into the
space below.
Your teacher will look at the following to assess your drawing:
• The drawing accurately shows the design you that sketched on page 92. (2)
• The drawing shows all important dimensions. (2)
• The drawing is to scale, and the scale is shown. (1)
• The drawing shows all hidden lines. (1)

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 Make: Isometric projection drawing

2. Make a 3D isometric drawing of what you will add to the structure Use a ruler.
You have to decide on the scale yourself so that the drawing will fit onto the
grid paper below.
The drawing does not need to show hidden lines.
Your teacher will look at the following to assess your drawing:
• The drawing accurately shows the design you that sketched on page 92. (2)
• The drawing shows the dimensions in the correct way. (3)
• The drawing is to scale, and the scale is shown. (1)

[Total marks: 12]

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 Week 3
Make improvements to the model and draw an artistic
perspective drawing of it
This is individual work, although team members may help one another by sharing
ideas.

Make your improvement to the model (60 minutes)

Cut out the parts that you are going to add to the structure to strengthen it, and
then attach them to the structure with Prestik.
Test your model to see if it is now stable enough to withstand forces acting on
its sides. If it is not, you have to make some more changes. [Total marks: 10]

Draw an artistic drawing in perspective of your model (60

minutes)
Most double vanishing point perspective drawings have vanishing points that are
so far away that you cannot draw them on the paper. If the vanishing points are
close to the drawing of an object, it looks as if you are looking at the object from
very close, like a fly would see the object. The drawing below is an example of this.

Figure 14: Looking at a rectangular frame from up close

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 This can look odd, and therefore artists mostly use vanishing points that are
very far away and cannot it on the paper.
Instructions for making the drawing
First draw a rectangular box into which the model will fit. Draw it in double
vanishing point perspective. Use vanishing points that are far away and not on the
paper. Draw feint lines for the visible as well as the hidden lines.
Then make a free-hand sketch of your model inside this box. Do not show
hidden lines. After you have drawn all the outlines, use shading to make the sketch
look more realistic. Hint: look back at what you learnt in Chapter 4 about shading.

The following principle of perspective will help you

to make the free-hand sketch:
Things look smaller the further away they are.

The drawing below shows how someone else sketched a motor car in double
vanishing point perspective, by first drawing a box into which the car will fit.

Figure 15: Making a double vanishing point perspective sketch of a complicated object

Something to do at home

Put this page on a large piece of newspaper. Make the lines of the rectangular frame longer to see
where the vanishing points are.

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 First make a rough sketch on this page, before you make your final drawing with
shading on the next page.
Mark allocation
Your teacher will look at the following to assess your model:
• It is easy to understand what the drawing shows. (3)
• You first made a rough sketch before you made your final drawing. (2)
• You drew a rectangular box in which your model will fit, using feint lines
for visible and hidden lines. (1)
• You drew the box in double vanishing point perspective, using vanishing
points that are far away and not on the paper. (2)
• You showed all your construction lines as feint lines. (1)
• You showed the outlines of your model as dark lines. (1)
• You used shading to make the sketch look realistic. (2)

[Total marks: 12]

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 Next week

Next week, you will hold an “Expo” of your projects. Each team will have a table
where they show their models, their design drawings, and their final drawings.
Each one of you will get the chance to walk between the tables of other teams
to look at their projects, and to ask them questions. This way you will learn how
other groups solved problems in a different way than your team did. This may give
you ideas for things that you will design and build in future.
If any of your drawings are not completed yet, complete them over the weekend.
Leave your model with the Technology teacher over the weekend. Do not take
it home.

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 Week 4
Present your model and drawings (60 minutes)
Each person in your team should be in charge of your team’s table for 15 minutes.
While you are in charge, you have to answer questions of the other learners who
will come to look at your project.
When you are not in charge of your team’s table, you should walk around to look
at all the other teams’ projects. Ask them questions about why they designed their
models in the way they did.
Use the space below to write down and draw at least one new idea that you
saw at another team’s table. This should be an idea that you never thought about
before your saw the other team’s model.

Enjoy your Easter holiday! Next term you will learn about the impact of technology
on society and the environment. You will learn how technology helps people, but
that it often has a negative impact on the environment. Fortunately, there are
clever ways of reducing the negative impact on the environment.

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 Term 2
Chapter 8
The impact of Technology
on society and the
environment
In this chapter, you will learn how plastic waste damages the environment. Then you will learn how this
negative impact can be reduced.
8.1 What are things made of? .......................................................................................................112
8.2 What happens to things when they are thrown away? ...............................................................115
8.3 How can you stop people from throwing plastic bags away? .....................................................118

Figure 1: What is this swing made of?

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 Many years ago, people could only use the But synthetic materials also have disadvantages.
materials that they found in the natural When they are thrown away, the waste lasts a
environment. This means all of the natural long time. Therefore, it is better to use synthetic
things that are around us. It includes air, water, materials over and over again. This is called
soil, plants and animals. Some examples of reusing materials.
natural materials are wood, leather, clay and
Because synthetic materials are cheap,
grass.
people can afford to buy more things that
Today, people use many new materials that are they want. One of the easiest ways to reduce
not found in the natural environment. These the disadvantages of synthetic materials is
materials are made in factories. They are often to buy fewer things. This is called reducing
made from oil or coal that are found under consumption. Before you buy something new,
ground. This includes materials like plastic, ask yourself if you really need it.
certain paints, and certain fabrics used to make
There is another disadvantage to synthetic
clothes. You may have heard of “polyester
materials that most people do not see. Harmful
clothes”, “PVA paint” and “neoprene rubber”.
waste is often formed at the factories where the
These are called synthetic materials.
synthetic materials are made. This waste can
Synthetic materials have many advantages. They end up in the air, the water and the soil. Modern
are often more durable, lighter and cheaper than factories are designed better than older factories
natural materials. Something is durable if it lasts so that they release less harmful waste into the
for a long time. environment.

electricity waste
gases

liquid waste

coal

solid
water waste

synthetic materials
Figure 2: Waste released by a factory

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 One good idea is to keep waste of synthetic Many people throw all their fruit and
materials separate from waste of natural materials. vegetable peels on a compost heap.
This is called waste separation. They also throw dead leaves, small tree
Waste of natural materials is broken down in the branches and cut grass on it.
natural environment to form harmless substances Over a few months, the waste on the
like compost. Some natural materials break up into compost heap changes into small dark
harmless substances simply when they lie in the sun pieces that feel like soft soil. This is called
compost or humus. Compost is a valuable
or in water for some time.
material, because plants grow better in
A material is called biodegradable if natural soil that contains a lot of compost.
processes can break the material into small A compost heap should be kept wet,
harmless pieces. warm and filled with air. You can do this
by covering the heap with a plastic sheet,
Materials that cannot break down naturally
and mixing the compost once a week.
into harmless substances are called non-
biodegradable materials.

freshly added vegetable waste

old vegetable waste that formed compost

Figure 3: A compost heap

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 8.1 What are things made of?
Look around you at the following objects in your classroom. For each object, do the
following:
(a) Write down what you think this type of object was made of hundreds of years
ago, before there were synthetic materials.
(b) Write down what this object is made of today.

Object What was it made of What is it made of today?

hundreds of years ago?
Shirt
Hint: Look at the label inside
your school shirt.
Jersey
Hint: Look at the label inside
your school jersey.
Pen

Something to write on
MATERIALS THAT CANNOT Hint: What did the
OUND IN NATURE
Egyptians write on? What
did the Khoisan draw on?
Pencil case

Paint

Roof

School bag

After you have completed the table, discuss your answers with the learner sitting
next to you.

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 Homework for the next lesson

You need to do these exercises to be able to answer the questions in the next
lesson.
1. Look at the contents of dustbins and garbage bags. Make a list of all the solid
materials in the waste.

2. Stand in street near your home. Look around you, without walking to another
position. Count how many plastic bags you can see. Go to a different street and
do the same again. Then complete the table below.

Number of plastic bags you can see

Street A
Street B

3. Look at plastic bags lying around outside that still look new.
Also look at plastic bags lying around outside that look old.
Why do some plastic bags look new and others old? What made the old ones
look that way?

4. Look at new and old pieces of materials made from plants that are lying
around, such as wood, cut grass, paper and cardboard. How do the newer pieces
of this waste differ from those that have been lying around for a long time?

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 How do you throw your waste away?

It is good for the environment if you put different collector to a factory that makes new glass
kinds of waste in different garbage bags or bottles out of old glass. This is much better than
boxes. This is called waste separation. For if the old glass lies on a rubbish heap. We say
example, if you put all your glass waste into a that glass can be recycled. You will learn more
box, then that glass can be taken by a waste about recycling next week.

MATERIALS THAT CANNOT

Figure 4: The weekly waste from a household that separates waste
OUND IN NATURE

Figure 5: The weekly waste from a household that does not separate waste

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 8.2 What happens to things that are thrown away?
Discuss in groups of three or four

To answer these questions, think back to the homework exercises you did.
1. (a) What are the differences between waste materials that have been lying
outside for a long time and those that have been there for a short time?

(b) Which types of materials changed a lot with time? And which types of
materials did not?

(c) Do some materials change more with time than others?

2. (a) What do you think will happen to plastic bags that lie in the environment
for more than 10 years, or 100 years, or 1 000 years?

(b) Do the plastic bags that are thrown away as waste just get more and more?
Or do they biodegrade? Or do they go somewhere else?

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 Different properties of different materials

Siphosethu uses a paper bag to carry her shopping.

Brandon uses a plastic bag.
Thabang uses a leather bag.
They all reuse their bags, but all of their bags break after some time.
Answer the following questions for each type of bag on your own.
1. What will happen to the bag when it gets wet?

Paper bag

Plastic bag

Leather bag

2. Do you need to care for the bag in some way so that it will last longer?

Paper bag

Plastic bag
MATERIALS THAT CANNOT
OUND IN NATURELeather bag

3. Can the bag be fixed when it breaks? If yes, then how?

Paper bag

Plastic bag

Leather bag

4. What will happen to the bag if it is thrown away with other waste like rotting
food? Where will the bag end up? What will happen to it there?

Paper bag

Plastic bag

Leather bag

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 Homework

Think about a place where garbage is burned. You may have seen places like this.

Figure 6: A burning garbage dump

1. What does the ground look like?

2. What does the air look like?

3. What does it smell like?

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 8.3 How can you stop people from throwing plastic bags
away?
Case study: The negative impact of plastic shopping bags on
people and the environment
During the past two weeks you have read and experienced a lot about the impact
of plastic materials on people and the environment. Think back about this when
you answer the following questions.
1. What can happen if an animal eats a plastic bag?

2. (a) What happens to people and animals who breathe in the smoke and gases
that comes from burning plastic?

W MATERIALS THAT CANNOT

OUND IN NATURE
(b) Where do the smoke and gases go after the fire has burnt?

(c) What stays behind on the ground after the plastic was burnt?

3. What does it look like when there are lots of plastic bags lying around your
house or school, or in the street, or in the veld?

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 4. Look at the photo below:

Figure 7

What can happen when plastic bags end up in a river or stream?

5. What happens to plastic if it lies in water for a long time? Does it change?

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 Report: Reducing the negative impact of plastic bags

Until 2003, South African shops gave customers free plastic bags to carry their
shopping. These bags were very thin, and broke easily. This meant that the bags
were thrown away after they were used.
Our government wanted to reduce plastic waste. In 2003, it banned
supermarkets from giving customers shopping bags for free, and banned the use
of very thin plastic shopping bags. These bags are illegal.
Since then, supermarkets ask customers to pay for thicker, stronger shopping
bags that can be used over and over again. The bags still look very thin, but
they are less thin than the shopping bags used before 2003. Customers can
choose not to buy new bags, and rather take old shopping bags with them to the
shops.
The new, thicker plastic shopping bags are also easier to recycle by recycling
factories. But this only helps if people separate their waste so that the plastic
bags can be sent to a recycling factory.

Think back about what you saw when you were looking at the contents of dustbins
and garbage bags, and at plastic bags lying around outside. Write a half-page
report about this to answer these four questions:
1. CANNOT
W MATERIALS THAT Do you think that making people pay for thicker, reusable shopping bags helps
OUND IN NATURE to reduce the amount of plastic shopping bags that people throw away?
2. Are some shops still giving away thin plastic shopping bags for free?
3. What percentage of people do you think put their plastic waste separate, and
not with their other waste?
4. Are there other things people can do so that less plastic bags are thrown away?

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 Figure 8: A wind turbine generates electricity by using the force of the blowing wind. The blades of the
turbine are made of a synthetic material called “epoxy resin,” that is combined with fibres. This makes the
blades very strong, but at the same time very light. Also, it is possible to make this material into a special
shape.

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 Next week

Next week you will be working with paper and cardboard in class. Instead of
buying new paper and cardboard, you will reuse old paper and cardboard. Gather
some paper and cardboard waste over the weekend, and bring it with you to school
at the start of next week. Gather things like cardboard packaging for food.

W MATERIALS THAT CANNOT

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 Chapter 9
Making new things out of
old things
In the following two weeks, you will learn how paper is recycled. You will also learn how to make new
objects out of old pieces of cardboard. You will make your own packaging for a product.

9.1 What are paper and cardboard made of? ........................................................................ 126
9.2 How are paper and cardboard recycled? ......................................................................... 128
9.3 Draw the development of a box ..................................................................................... 132
9.4 Make your own box ...................................................................................................... 134
9.5 Your final box ............................................................................................................... 136
9.6 Make a pencil case ....................................................................................................... 137

Figure 1: Gathering paper and cardboard waste separate from other waste

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 Cutting Making paper and
down trees cardboard in a
paper factory

Using paper
and cardboard

Throwing away paper

and cardboard

Figure 2: Using paper and cardboard without recycling it

Did you know?

Paper and cardboard are materials that are biodegradable. They
When 54 kg of newspaper is
do not damage the environment when they are thrown away.
recycled, one less tree has to
They can also be burnt in order to generate heat or electricity,
be cut down.
and no poisonous gases will be given off. But to make paper and
Almost 40% of municipal solid
cardboard, trees have to be cut off. If paper and cardboard are
waste is paper and cardboard.
recycled, fewer trees have to be cut down.

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 Returning waste
paper and cardboard
to the paper factory

Separting waste paper and

cardboard from other waste

Figure: 3: Using paper and cardboard, and recycling it

Did you know?

The average person uses almost 50 kg of paper and cardboard per
year.
Poisonous chlorine gas is used to bleach paper. To bleach means
to make white. The chlorine can form poisonous gases called
dioxins, which can be released into the atmosphere.

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 9.1 What are paper and cardboard made of?
A paper recycling factory makes new paper or cardboard out of waste paper. The
way this is done is explained below. You can also make recycled paper at home.
1. Waste paper is mixed with warm water and
chemicals. It is stirred and chopped up by a
machine to separate the thin little fibres the paper
is made of. The machine that stirs and chops up
the mixture of paper and water, works like a food
blender.
The mixture of chopped-up paper and water is
called paper pulp.
2. The pulp is poured through a sieve. Old glue and
fibres that are very short pass through the sieve.
Long, strong fibres remain on top. These fibres Figure 4
then go to a stirred tank where chemicals are
added to remove ink from the pulp.
3. New glue is added to the pulp. Some clay is
also added if the recycled paper will be used
for writing or printing, because the clay gives
the paper a smoother surface.
4. The pulp goes to a paper-making
machine, where it is pressed between
two rollers to give it the required Figure 5: A sieve
thickness, and to squeeze out water.
Instead of waiting a long time for the paper to dry, it is dried more quickly by
heating it and blowing hot air over it. Once the paper is dry, it is cut into the
necessary size and packaged.
Paper fibres can be recycled as many as seven times. But each time it is recycled,
the fibres get broken into shorter and shorter fibres. If it is recycled too many
times, the fibres become too short and weak to use for making paper again.

Case study: Paper recycling

1. What is cardboard made of?

2. Why can paper not be recycled more than seven times?

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 3. What will happen when the holes of the sieve are too big?

4. What will happen when the holes of the sieve are too small?

Homework for the next lesson

Find some old empty pill boxes and Safety warning

bring them to school for the next Do not remove pills from pill boxes. Pill boxes
lesson. If you cannot find a pill box, have labels that say what the pills are and how
bring another small box that can to use them. If those labels are lost, somebody
close after you opened it. Try to find at may not know what medicine to take and how
least two such boxes. Some spices are to take it.
packaged in boxes like these, as well as Ask your parent or another adult for an empty
some light bulbs. pill box.

Figure 6: Part of an old paper-making machine

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 9.2 How are paper and cardboard recycled?
Take out one of the small boxes that you brought to school. Look carefully at all
sides of the box. Then open the box so you can look inside it, but do not tear or cut
the box to open it. While you are looking at the box, try to imagine how this box
was made out of flat cardboard.

The following words describe different things about

a box:
• A face is one of the flat surfaces of the box that
can be seen from the outside.
• An edge is the line where two faces meet.
• A corner is where three faces meet at a single
point. At this point, there are also three edges
that are meeting.
• A tab is an extra flap attached to a face that
helps to keep the box closed. It cannot be seen
from the outside of a closed box.

face
tab

edge

corner

Figure 7: The different parts of a box

Think about the different parts of a box

1. How many faces does the box have?

2. How many edges does the box have?

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 3. How many corners does the box have?

4. Look at the two drawings of the box below. The drawings were made by looking
at the box from different angles. A name is written on each face of this box.
Write the same names on the different faces of your own box.

Figure 8: Giving names for the different faces of a box

5. Out of how many separate pieces of cardboard was the box made?

There are three different ways in which an edge can

be made in a cardboard box.
• Unbroken edge: The cardboard is simply folded
along a line.
• Edge made using a tab: One of the two faces that
come together has a tab attached to it. This tab
folds in underneath the other face to close the
box.
• Edge made with a tab glued to another face:
This is the same as an edge made with a tab, but
this time the tab is permanently attached to the
other face by glue.

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 The different types of edges of your box

1. The photos below show different edges of a box.

Write what kind of edge is on each photo. Write the type below the photo.

Figure 9

2. How many of the edges of your box are unbroken edges?

3. How many of the edges of your box are made using tabs that are not glued?

4. How many of the edges of your box are made using tabs that are glued?

5. How many tabs in total were used to make the box?

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 Homework

1. (a) Find an old cardboard box. It should be made

of thin, solid cardboard. Cereal boxes and
other boxes in which food are packaged are
normally made from cardboard like this. The
box must not be made of corrugated
cardboard.
(b) Cut the box and fold it flat. The flat sheet of
cardboard in front of you should be at least as
big as an A4 sheet of paper.
(c) Do the same to make two more cardboard
sheets.

Figure 10: Boxes for packing

2. Find at least eight old A4 paper sheets. One side of food are made of thin, solid
each of these sheets should be clean, because you cardboard.
will draw on it.
3. Bring the paper and cardboard sheets to all your
Technology lessons next week. You will reuse
this old paper and cardboard to make paper and
cardboard boxes.
4. Bring your pill boxes, or other small boxes, to your
next lesson again.

Figure 11: Large boxes are

made of corrugated cardboard.

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 9.3 Draw the development of a box
Cut the box open along the edge where it was glued together. Fold it flat. We call
this the flat plan or development of the box.

Figure 12: You can unfold a box to make one flat piece of cardboard. This is the development of a box.

Trace the development onto a piece a paper, using a feint line. Trace it in the
middle of the blank piece of paper, so that there is space left around the traced
development.You can use the development many times to trace, like the
illustration below shows.

Figure 13: Tracing a shape to make many Christmas cards with the same picture.

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 When you traced the development of the box, your lines were not very neat and
straight. That is why you made the lines feint. Now use a ruler to draw straight
dark lines over the feint lines of your development. The dark lines has to show
where the paper has to be cut. Do not draw dark lines for any other reason, otherwise
you may later cut off something that you don’t want to cut off!
Add dashed lines to show where the paper will be folded.
Now cut out your development. Do not cut the dashed lines that are for the folds. Fold
the development to make it into a box.
If you accidentally cut off something that you should not have cut off, don’t
worry. Most people make mistakes when they try to design and make a box for
the irst time. But learn from your mistakes. Ask yourself what you should do next
time to make the box right, or better.

Homework

1. (a) Make a new paper model of your box. This time make a neater one. Think
carefully before you start cutting out your development, to make sure that
you do not cut off something that should not be cut off.
Remember that your paper model of the box should be made out of just one
piece of paper.
(b) Bring the cardboard box that you cut open and folded flat, as well as the
paper model you made of this box, to the next lesson.
2. Remember to bring the paper and cardboard sheets that you gathered over the
weekend to each lesson next week.

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 9.4 Make your own box
Learning the tricks
Now that you have successfully made a paper box, You will make a cardboard box
you will prepare for making a stronger box out of this week, but you first have
cardboard, using the same design. to learn a few tricks. People
Cardboard is more dificult to fold. And thick who do technological work call
cardboard can crack when you fold it. You irst need tricks like these techniques.
to learn a trick for folding cardboard. You also need It makes sense that the word
to learn how to join two pieces of cardboard together technology is similar to the
word technique!
with glue. You will have to do it in such a way that the
glue will dry quickly, and the joint will be strong.
How to glue cardboard
You will join two pieces of cardboard with white wood glue. But first do an
experiment to find out whether it is better to use a lot of glue, or only a little bit of
glue.
Join two small pieces of cardboard with a
thick layer of glue between them. Press the
pieces of cardboard together for two minutes,
then let go. Has the glue dried? Try to gently
pull the two pieces of cardboard apart. Is the
joint strong? Figure 14: Using a lot of glue
Now try to join two other pieces of
cardboard. This time use very little glue. Put
only a drop of glue on the cardboard, and
then spread it with your inger. Wood glue is
not poisonous, and you can wash it off with
water. The cardboard should look wet and
shiny. It should not look white like the glue.
Press the pieces of cardboard together for
two minutes, then let go. Has the glue dried?
Try to gently pull the two pieces of cardboard
Figure 15: Using very little glue
apart. Is the joint strong?

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 How to fold cardboard
To fold cardboard to make a 90° bend, you first need to
do the following experiment to find out what the best
technique is.
Fold a rectangular piece of cardboard in half. Use
a thick piece of cardboard, like the cardboard that a
cereal box is made of. The length of the fold should be
at least 10 cm. Cut three pieces of cardboard that you Figure 16: Make a fold without
will fold in half in different ways. first making a groove.
With the irst piece of cardboard, draw a pencil line
on the inside and then fold along that line. Fold it all
the way over, using the end of your pencil to make
the fold sharp. Then bend it back so that it forms a 90°
bend.
To fold the second piece of cardboard, irst make a
groove on the outside of the cardboard. Put your ruler
where you want the fold to be, then draw a line with
Figure 17: Use the end of your
a ball point pen. Press hard with the pen, to make pencil to make the fold sharp.
a groove in the cardboard. Grip the ruler tightly so
that it does not move while you draw the line. Draw
the same line two or three times, to make the groove
deeper. Fold the cardboard along this groove. Fold it
all the way over, using the end of your pencil to make
the fold sharp. Then bend it back so that it forms a 90°
bend.
To fold the third piece of cardboard, irst make two
grooves on the inside of the cardboard. Make a groove
Figure 18: Make a fold by first
in the same way as before. The two grooves should be
making a groove on the outside.
parallel, and 1 mm to 2 mm apart. Fold the cardboard
along these grooves. Fold it all the way over, using the
end of your pencil to make the fold sharp. Then bend
it back so that it forms a 90° bend.
Now look closely at each of the three folds. Is it a
neat fold? Are there any cracks on the outside of the
fold? Was it easy or dificult to make the fold? Is the
fold exactly where you wanted it to be?

Which way of folding do you think is the best?

Figure 19: Make a fold by first

making two grooves on the
inside.

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 9.5 Your final box
Use the cardboard box that you folded flat to trace the same design onto a flat
sheet of cardboard. (See Figure 12 on page 132.) Use feint lines. Once again draw
the glued tab in the position where it was originally attached to the single piece of
cardboard.
Do the same as you did to make your paper model of the box. But this time, use
the best technique to make a fold in the cardboard.
When you have cut and folded the cardboard, irst test whether it will make a
box, and that all the tabs are there. If it is correct, then glue the one tab to the face
to which it should be glued. Use the right amount of glue.
If you have time left in the lesson, also do the following activity.

Something extra you could do to make your box

close better

Look closely at the tabs of a Make a new cardboard box, but

pill box. You will see small cuts this time also make those small
in some of the tabs. What do cuts.
Figure 20: The small cuts in
you think is the purpose of
a tab that is used to open
those small cuts?
and close the box

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 9.6 Make a pencil case
Design a new box of a different size. The new box will be used as a pencil case. You
should be able to fit two pencils, two pens, an eraser and a sharpener in it. You
will design the pencil case by using the same ideas that you used to make your
previous cardboard box.
First make a rough plan of how the development for the box will look. Do
this on the next page. The rough plan should show all the dimensions of the
development. Dimensions mean the same as measurements. To draw up the rough
plan as quickly as possible, make the drawing by hand, without a ruler.
Then draw the plan accurately on a piece of cardboard, using your ruler to
measure and draw straight lines. Remember to use dashed lines to show where
the paper will be folded. Do not cut along the dashed lines.
Go on and make your own cardboard pencil case.
Make a rough sketch of a development for a pencil case:

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 Reduce, reuse, recycle
Last week you learnt that it damages the
environment when more and more plastic is made
and thrown away. You can reduce this negative
impact on the environment in different ways.
Firstly, you can buy less plastic things, which is
called reducing your consumption. Secondly, you
can use some things over and over, so that you
don’t have to buy new things. This is called reusing
things.
This week you learnt about recycling. What if you
have something, and that something gets broken
or you don’t need it anymore? Then you have to
throw it away. Fortunately, there is a clever way of
throwing things away, by separating the different
types of waste. For example, if you and your family
collect all your plastic waste separately, then
someone can take that plastic to a recycling factory
where new plastic is made from the old plastic.

Figure 21

Next week

Next week, you will learn where electricity comes from. Generating electricity has
a negative impact on the environment. Burning wood or gas or paraffin for heating
or cooking, also has a negative impact. You will think of ways to reduce this
negative impact, by designing a house in a clever way.

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 Chapter 10: mini-paT
Design a house to use
less energy
When electricity is generated, it has a negative impact on the environment. To burn wood or gas or
paraffin, also has a negative impact. During the next three weeks, you will think of ways to reduce
this negative impact by designing a house in a clever way.

Week 1
The hidden cost of electricity ........................................................................................ 141

Week 2
Save energy by using less building materials .................................................................. 153

Week 3
Build a model of a house ............................................................................................... 165

Week 4
Make improvements to your model house ...................................................................... 175

Week 5
Present your model of a low-energy house ...................................................................... 178

Assessment
Investigate:
The different parts of a power station ............................................................................ [3½]
Carbon dioxide ............................................................................................................. [4½]
What can you do to release less carbon dioxide? ............................................................... [6]
What forces act inside a beam that bends? ........................................................................ [6]
Design:
How to improve a house to use less energy ..................................................................... [10]
Make:
Build a model of a house.................................................................................................. [5]
Isometric projection drawing of your planned improvements ............................................. [15]
Improve your model house ............................................................................................ [20]
[Total marks: 70]

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 summer

Ceiling insulation keeps

heat out in summer.

North

winter
Ceiling insulation keeps
heat inside in winter.

North

Figure 1: A cleverly designed house lets the sun’s heat in on a winter’s day, but keeps it out on a
summer’s day.

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 Week 1
The hidden cost of electricity
In the last few years, the cost of electricity has increased a lot. Some people are
unhappy about this, because they don’t have enough money to pay for electricity.
Electricity also has another cost that has nothing
to do with money. This is the “cost” of electricity to To make electricity is usually
the environment. Just like the amount of money that called to generate electricity.
people have changes when they pay for electricity,
so the environment changes when electricity is
generated.
This week, you will learn how the environment is changed by electricity
generation. This change is often bad for the environment. You can say that
electricity generation has a negative impact on the environment.
You will think about ways that this negative impact can be reduced.

Where does electricity come from? (30 minutes)

Figure 2

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 Figure 3

Figure 4

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 Figure 5

The boy followed the electricity lines to see where electricity comes from. When
he went inside the power plant, a technician told him how a coal-fired power plant
works. This is what she told him:

“In a power station, coal is burnt underneath a When a balloon bursts, or when
there is a puncture in a bicycle
tank full of water that is called a boiler. The heat
or a motorcar tyre, the air
from the fire makes the water boil and evaporate to
inside bursts out very quickly
form steam with a high pressure. The high pressure
and strongly. This is because
steam blows through a turbine and makes it turn. the air inside a balloon and a
This is very much like the wind making a wind tyre is under high pressure.
pump turn. A device called a generator converts the
rotational movement of the turbine into electricity.
The gases and smoke from the fire passes through a
filter before it goes through the chimney into the air.
The filter removes most of the ash and soot particles,
so that there is only a little bit of smoke that comes
out the top of the chimney.”

Figure 6

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 Figure 7

A coal-fired power plant has the following parts:

• A generator.
• A cooling tower. This tower uses air to cool the steam that comes out of the
turbine. This makes the steam condense into water, which is then reused. Only
a little bit of steam is released from the top of the tower.
• A furnace where the coal is burnt.
• A filter to remove ash and soot particles, so that they are not released into the
air.
• A chimney releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• A turbine.
• A boiler tank where water is changed into high-pressure steam.

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 Investigate: The different parts of a power station

Which part of a power station is shown by which number on the picture in Figure
7? Use your pencil to write the names of the parts on the dashed lines next to the
numbers on the picture. [3½]
How does electricity generation impact on the
environment? (30 minutes)
Look at the picture below.

scale for weighing

Figure 8: Can mass disappear into nowhere?

The ash left at the end weighs much less than the wood from which the fire was
made at the start. What happened to the rest of the weight?

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 There are many different materials or substances that you can burn to create heat
and light. Wood, coal, paraffin, gas and oil are some of the substances that you
know about. They are called fuels. All of these fuels contain carbon.
Carbon is one of the main building blocks from
which plants and animals are made. These building
blocks are very small. It is impossible to see them. When two very small building
Carbon is a solid. blocks of a material are close
together, they stick together,
Carbon stores energy, like a battery. When carbon is as if they were glued with very
on its own, you can say the battery is charged. When strong glue. This is called
chemical bonding. You will
the carbon is bonded with another small building
learn more about this later
block called oxygen, then the battery is lat. Oxygen
when you do chemistry in
is a gas. When carbon is bonded to oxygen, they are
natural science.
together called carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a gas.

Go outside on a very cold but sunny winter’s day. Let the sunlight shine on your
hand. Why does your hand start to feel warm, even though the air around it is very
cold? It is because the sunlight is changed into heat, inside your skin. Light and
heat are two different forms of energy. Movement and electricity are two other
forms of energy.

When carbon bonds with oxygen, energy is released in the form of heat:
carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide + energy.
This is what happens when an animal eats food that contains carbon and breathes
air that contains oxygen. The carbon and oxygen combine inside the animal to
give it energy and to make it grow. The same thing happens when plant material
containing carbon burns in air.
To separate carbon and oxygen that is bonded, energy is needed. Plants separate
carbon and oxygen by using the energy of sunlight:
carbon dioxide + light = carbon + oxygen.
Plants use the carbon to grow, because carbon is the main building block of
plants. They release the oxygen back into the air.
The change of carbon into carbon dioxide and then
back into carbon is called the carbon cycle. This is
shown in the picture on the next page.

When you make a fire or burn gas or paraffin in your house, carbon dioxide
is released into the air. When you use an electrical stove, no carbon dioxide is
released from your house. But carbon dioxide is released from a power plant that
makes the electricity you use.

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 carbon dioxide (invisible gas)

breathe out
energy

move
think
grow
sunlight body heat
energy

energy
oxyge
n (invis
ible ga
s)

heat

bre ANIMALS
at
he
in

PLANTS
FIRE

sunlight
eat

carbon dioxide
(gas)

carbon in plant materials

oxygen (gas)

carbon (solid)

Figure 9: The carbon cycle

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 Investigate: Carbon dioxide

1. (a) What changes carbon dioxide gas back into carbon in a solid form? (1)

(b) What does this solid carbon become part of? (1)

2. Can you see carbon dioxide rising from a fire? (½)

3. People use fuel for light and heat. What else do they use fuel for? (1)

On the right is a picture of a greenhouse.

Greenhouses keep plants warm in winter, by using
the energy of sunlight. It lets the energy of sunlight
come inside, but does not let the same amount of
energy go outside again. Therefore, it is warmer
inside a greenhouse than outside. Greenhouses can
be made from glass or plastic.
The layer of air around the earth is called the
atmosphere. It is a little bit like the glass or plastic
covering of a greenhouse. It lets the energy of
sunlight in, but does not let the same amount of
energy escape again. This is called the greenhouse
effect. If this did not happen, it would be freezing Figure 10
cold every night!
When something is burnt, carbon dioxide is
released into the air. Carbon dioxide is a gas that
is very good at trapping the energy of sunlight. But
only a small part of air is made of carbon dioxide.
The more carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere, the
more energy of sunlight is trapped, which means
it will become warmer on earth. Many people are
worried that the climate is changing, which can
lead to droughts and storms.

Figure 11

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 4. What would happen if the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
increases? (1)

Total [4½]

How can the negative impact of electricity generation be

reduced? (60 minutes)
Later this year, you will learn about different kinds of power stations. Some of
them release less or no carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. There is hope that
in future, less electricity will be generated by coal-fired power stations. But most
electricity is still generated by coal-ired power stations, and this is not going to
change soon.
You will now discuss what the users of electricity can do to reduce the amount
of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. Every time you switch on a kettle
or another electrical appliance, you use electricity. The more electricity people use,
the more electricity the power stations have to generate.
There is also a hidden way of using electricity. Every time you buy something that
was made in a factory, the factory used electricity to make the product. If people
bought less of those products, then the factories would be smaller and use less
electricity.

Investigate: What can you do to release less carbon dioxide?

In this lesson, your teacher will lead the whole class in a discussion about how
ordinary people can use less electricity, or burn less wood, gas or paraffin. The
following questions will give you some ideas for your discussion:

1. When you make tea or coffee, how much water do you put into the kettle to
boil? Do you put in more water than you need? Does the amount of water that
you boil have an effect on how much electricity you consume? (1)

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 2. When you leave a room, do you switch off the lights? Will that reduce the
amount of electricity you use? (1)

3. Many houses have an electrical geyser to heat water. A geyser is a water tank
that supplies hot water to taps. An electric element in a geyser heats the water,
just like an electric element inside a kettle heats water.
Sarah takes a warm shower for five minutes every day. Nyiko takes a warm
shower for 20 minutes every day. Does the time you take to shower have an
effect on how much electricity you use? (1)

4. Look at the following cut-away

picture of a geyser. Can something
be changed or added to a geyser so
that it will use less electricity? (1)

Figure 12

Figure 13: Some materials keep you warm. Why?

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 5. Thabo’s family uses an electric heater
to heat their house in winter. On the
right is a photo of their roof from inside
the house. Somebody told them that a
lot of heat can escape through a roof.
This means that a lot of the heat from
the heater is wasted because it leaves
through the roof. Can they change
something to their house so that less
heat will escape through the roof? (1)

Figure 14

6. Nabeelah’s family live in a house without electricity. They use gas, candles
and wood for heat and light. Katlego’s family lives in a house with electricity.
They only use electric lights and appliances. The two families are the same size.
They both use about the same amount of light, hot water, and heat for cooking.
Which family causes more carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere?
(1)

Total [6]

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 Something you could do at home

Below is one idea for using box was made from waste Safety warnings
less electricity or fuel when materials. Before the towel was Boiling hot water can burn you!
cooking: wrapped around it, the box felt If the food in the box is warm
Bring the food to boiling point slightly warm after the pot was but not hot, and it stays in the
in a pot on the stove. Then put into it. That meant that heat box for more than an hour,
take the pot off the stove and was escaping from the pot. bacteria can grow. That can
wrap it in a thick jacket to So an extra layer of insulation cause food poisoning. To
keep it very hot. Leave it there was added by wrapping a towel prevent this, make sure that
for two to three hours. The around the box. The towel was the box is well insulated, and
idea is the same as a person carefully wrapped around the do not leave food in the box for
dressing very warmly on a cold box, so that it covered every more than three hours.
day. To wrap a jacket around part of the box. If some part
a pot to keep it warm is called of the box was not covered
insulating the pot. by the towel, heat could have
The photo below shows an escaped from that part of the
insulated cooking box that box. It took two hours to cook
was used to cook rice. This the rice.

part of a
polystyrene
plate
foil

bubble wrap

tin can with

rice and
boiling hot
water inside

old paper,
wrinkled so
that it traps
air inside

towel
plastic container with lid

Figure 15: Insulated cooking box made of waste materials

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 Week 2
Save energy by using less building materials
Factories use electricity or burn coal to make many Did you know?
building materials like cement and steel. You can say About 9 kg of carbon dioxide
that there is an energy cost and a carbon dioxide cost to is released into the air to
building materials. manufacture 10 kg of cement
How can the amount of carbon dioxide that is or 10 kg of steel.
released into the atmosphere be reduced? One way is
to design things cleverly so that less material is needed to build them. Then the
factories will make less material. Another way is to cut down fewer trees, because
trees help to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.
This week, you will learn about three materials made in special shapes, or
combined in special ways, so that a small amount of material can make a strong
object. You will learn about reinforced concrete, plywood, and steel I-beams.
But irst, you will do revision about the different types of forces that can act on
materials.

Forces acting on materials (30 minutes)

Revision questions

Look back on what you learnt in Chapter 1 to answer the following questions. If
you find a question difficult, it can help you to first make a rough sketch of the
situation. Your brain often works better if you can see the thing that you have to
think about.

1. What forces can act on a tree trunk?

2. What type of force acts on a column or pillar under a bridge?

3. What type of force acts on the chain of a bicycle?

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 4. Take your workbook and bend it as in the photo below. Make sure that the left
and right sides of the book stay at right angles to the front and back of the
book.

Figure 16

(a) Why does the book make a “bubble” at the top when you bend it?

(b) What does it feel like at the bottom of the book? Are the bottom pages loose
or tight?

5. Bolts and nuts are used to hold

different pieces of material
together, as shown in the picture
on the right.
What different types of forces can
act on a bolt? Explain your answer
or answers.

Figure 17

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 Reinforced concrete and plywood (30 minutes)
Reinforced concrete
Concrete is used in most modern structures and buildings. It can withstand very
large compressive forces without breaking. But it cannot withstand large tensile
forces. In most situations, concrete structural members like pillars and beams
experience both compressive and tensile forces. To make concrete withstand
large tensile forces too, steel rods or mesh is placed in the concrete when the wet
concrete is poured into a shape or mould. Steel can withstand very large tensile
forces. Concrete that has steel inside of it is called reinforced concrete.

Figure 18: Steel reinforcement is used to strengthen the concrete foundations of a new house.

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 Figure 19: Steel reinforcement is put inside a concrete pillar of a big building.

Figure 20: Steel reinforcement is put inside a concrete wall of a big building.

Plywood
Wood is made of fibres that are arranged lengthwise in
Another way to say “across”
a tree trunk or branch. This arrangement is called the
the direction of the grain, is to
grain of the wood, and it can be seen as thin parallel say at a right angle with the
lines. direction of the grain.
Wood often cracks in the direction of its grain. This
happens when a tensile force is applied across the
direction of the grain.

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 Figure 21: Splitting wood across the direction of the grain, or in the direction of the grain. Which
is easiest?

Plywood is a made by glueing many thin

layers of wood on top of one another.
The grain in each layer is at a right
angle to the grains in the layers above
and below it. Plywood can therefore
withstand large tensile forces in both
directions.
Plywood is mostly used for shell
structures that cover large surface
areas, like loors. Other examples of the Figure 22: The different layers of plywood
use of plywood are for seats and back
rests of chairs, for table tops, and for
skateboards.
A plywood shell structure is often supported by a frame structure underneath it.

Figure 23: A skateboard is made of plywood

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 Investigate: Properties of different materials

1. If a material is pulled in the directions of its length and its width using the
same tensile force, will it stretch by the same amount in both directions?
(a) The material of which a jersey is made:

(b) The material of which a school shirt is made:

Look at the pictures below. A dry piece of wood cracks easily when you bend it, but
the rubber sole of a shoe does not crack, even if you bend it a lot.

Figure 24

Rubber can change shape when it is pulled apart or pushed together. When you
stop pushing or pulling it, it returns to its original shape. People say that rubber is
an elastic material. Elastic bands are also made from rubber. When a tensile force
is applied to an elastic rubber band, it gets longer. It also gets thinner.
Dry wood is only a little bit elastic, so it cannot get much longer when you apply
a tensile force to it. Therefore, when the tensile force is too big, the wood will
crack. You can also say the wood will fracture. Note that the wood cracks at the top
or outside of the bend, and not on the inside.

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 Steel I-beams (60 minutes)
Metal beams can be shaped in special ways to make them resist bending. The
shape called an I-beam is a shape that resists bending very well.

Figure 25: Steel I-beams are often used in buildings. Wood I-beams are often used during the construction
of a building, but are removed once the building can support its own weight.

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 The pictures below compare the resistance to bending of an I-beam, to the
resistance to bending of a rectangular-shaped beam. Both beams have the same
length between the two supports. And the load is the same on both beams.

rectangular beam

I-beam

Figure 26

Count the blocks inside the pictures of the shapes of both beams. You will see
that both beams are made from the same amount of material. That means that the
weight of both beams are the same, and the cost of the material will be the same.
Which beam bends the most under the weight of the load?
Because an I-beam resists bending better, a lighter and cheaper I-beam can
be used to carry the same load as a rectangular beam. That also means that less
steel will have to be made, so less energy will be used to make steel. In this way,
clever design of material helps to reduce the negative impact of technology on the
environment.
In the rest of the lesson, you will investigate why an I-beam resists bending
better than a rectangular beam of the same weight. First, you have to understand
what forces act at different places in a beam when it is bending.

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 Investigate: What forces act inside a beam that bends?

In the picture on the right, the dry

piece of wood fractures at the top
of the bend. That means there is a
tensile force acting along the top of
the wood. But the wood is only bent,
so how can there be a tensile force
acting on it?
Figure 27
The pictures below will help you to understand what happens to a beam that
bends. The pictures do not show what the material of which the beam is made of
actually looks like. Instead, the pictures show an imagined idea that wood is made
of a lot of little blocks that are connected by springs.

compressive force

no force

tensile force

Figure 28: Pictures of a wooden beam as if it is made of small blocks connected by springs.

1. What happens to the imaginary springs when a tensile force acts along the
length of the beam?

2. What happens to the imaginary springs when a compressive force acts along
the length of the beam?

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 Below are pictures of a thin and a thick beam. Each beam bends when a load is
applied in the middle of it. The pictures are drawn as if the beams are made up of
many small blocks connected by springs.

1
2
1 3
2 4
3 5
6
7

Figure 29
When a beam bends down, the following happens:
• The top gets shorter. It is compressed.
• The bottom gets longer. It is stretched.
• The middle stays the same length.

3. What type of force acts along the top of the beam when it bends down?

4. What type of force acts along the bottom of the beam when it bends down?

5. Is there a tensile or compressive force acting along the middle of the beam
when it bends down? (1)

How does a spring work?

• The shorter you want to make a spring, the
harder you have to press it.
• The longer you want to make a spring, the harder
you have to pull it.

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 6. Look at the thick beam on Figure 29. There are seven rows or layers of blocks
connected with springs. The layers are numbered.
(a) Which two layers of the beam help it the most to resist bending? (1)

(b) Does the middle layer of a beam help it to resist bending? (1)

7. Look at beam A and beam B below. They are both made of the same amount of
material. You can count the blocks to check this.
A

Figure 30
Which beam will bend the least if the same load is applied to both beams?

8. Compare beam C on the right to beams A and B. Will beam C resist

bending better than beam B?

Beam C will resist bending the best when the force

is acting exactly downdwards. But if there is only
a very small sideways force, beam C will buckle
because it is so thin. C

Figure 31

Figure 32

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 Engineers wanted to design a new shape for a beam that will resist bending more
than beam B, but without buckling like beam C. They knew that the material in the
middle of a beam does help a lot to resist bending, because it does not stretch or
compress a lot in the middle of a beam when it bends. Figure 33 explains this.
So they took the design of beam B, and removed some material from the middle
and rather added it to the top and bottom, where there will be more stretching and
compression. In this way, they made the beam taller, but they also added short
horizontal parts at the top and the bottom to prevent the beam from buckling
sideways. This is shown in the pictures below.

Figure 33

9. Why does an I-beam resist bending better than a rectangular beam made from
the same amount of material?
Your answers to the previous questions will help you.

Total [6]

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 Week 3
Build a model of a house
A lot of electricity or fuel is used to heat a building when it’s cold, or to cool it
when it’s hot.
This week, you will build a cardboard model of a house from the plans you will
be given. Then you will design and make changes to the house so that it will need
less heating in summer, and less cooling in winter.
Some of the changes you will make will be inside the house, and others will be
outside. You will build a model of only one half of a house, as if the house has been
cut open along the length of the roof. This will make it easy to work inside the
small cardboard house to make changes to it. It will also make it easy for other
people to see the changes you have made.

Figure 34

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 Build a model of a house: Individual work (60 minutes)
The photo below shows the developments for different parts of the cardboard
model that you will build. The walls and the floor are made out of one piece of
cardboard. The roof and the inside wall of the house are made of two other pieces
of cardboard. There are also thin strips of cardboard that will close the places
where the windows are cut out and the door is cut open.

Figure 35: Dashed lines show where you should fold the cardboard.

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 You will make your model out of thin cardboard. To save time, do not make roof
trusses for your model.
You could use some old cereal boxes for cardboard. You will later cut out, fold
and glue together your model. But irst do the following things:
1. Make accurate drawings of the developments of the different parts your model.
Make these drawings on cardboard.
2. Cut out and fold the developments of the different parts of your model.
3. Glue the small strips of cardboard to the walls, to close the spaces where the
windows were cut out and the door was cut open.

Figure 36

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 4. Fold the walls, and use Prestik to join them together. Then add the roof and the
inside wall, also using Prestik. Have another look at Figure 36 if you are not sure
how to do this.
Do not use glue from now on. Rather use Prestik, because you might want to
take out the inside wall, remove the roof, or fold the walls down later. After you
have made the changes, you can put the walls and roof back with Prestik.
Total [5]

How do you know when heat is escaping?

Look at the pictures below. The same pot full of a bag filled with straw around the pot, and then
hot food is shown on the left and on the right. On picks up the pot without burning his hands. You
the left, somebody tries to pick up the pot and can say the hot pot on the right is insulated by
burns his hands. On the right, somebody puts the straw bag.

Figure 37: A hot pot with and without insulation

When you touch an object and feel that it is hot, it You can feel the heat of the pot on the left,
means that heat is escaping from the object. So which means that heat is escaping from that pot.
the heat moves from the object to you. You are Therefore, the pot will cool down.
getting warmer and the object is getting cooler. You cannot feel the heat of the pot on the right
When you touch an object and it does not feel with the straw bag around it. That means heat is
hot, it means that heat is not moving from the not escaping from that pot, or it is escaping very
object to you. slowly. So the pot on the right will stay warmer for
much longer than the pot on the left.

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 Team meeting on how to improve a house (30 minutes)
Design: How to improve a house to use less energy

Think of ideas to improve a house so that it will use less electricity and/or fuel.
The questions below can help you. Working as a team will also help you, but you
should still write down your own ideas. Your teacher will assess your ideas.
Try to think of changes to a house that will be cheap and easy to make.
Maybe you can use recycled or natural materials, or even plants.

1. What can be changed about the roof design so that sunlight will not come
through the windows in the middle of summer, but will come through the
windows in winter? Make a rough sketch of your design. (2)

2. How can you prevent heat from escaping through the roof when it is cold
outside? Make a rough sketch of your design. (2)

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 3. The owners of a house want to put in a small
fireplace, like the one on the right, to heat the
house in winter.
(a) Where in the house should they put the
fireplace and its chimney? Show the position
of the fireplace on the floor plan below. A floor
plan is what you see when the roof is off and
you look at the house from the top.
Hint: You want as much of the heat from the
fireplace to stay inside the house. You do not
want heat to escape to the outside. (1)

Hint: Read the part in the coloured box on page

168 about the insulated pot.

Figure 38

Figure 39: Floor plan of your model house

(b) Why would you put the fireplace there? (1)

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 4. Three different people cook soup on a gas stove in different ways, as shown
below.

Figure 40

Who will use the least amount of gas to cook the soup?
Explain your answer. (2)

5. Have another look at the previous two chapters. Do any of the pictures give you
other ideas on how to improve a house to save energy? (2)

Total [10]

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 Drawing your planned improvements to the house (30 minutes)

Make: Isometric projection drawing of your planned

improvements
1. Make a freehand sketch in 3D to show what you plan to add or change to the
outside of the house. Your sketch should show what you would see if you were
sitting in a tree on the front, left side of the house. One of the photos in Figure
34 shows this view of the house.
Add labels and notes to your sketch to explain the improvements.
Your teacher will look at the following to give you marks:
• You have shown at least one improvement on the outside of the house. (1)
• The improvements will really reduce how much energy the house will
use, and it will be cheap and easy to make the improvements in real life. (2)
• It is easy for someone else to understand what you have sketched. (2)
• The labels and notes explain the improvements well. (2)

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 2. Make an isometric projection drawing to show your planned improvements to
the outside of the house. Your drawing should again show what you would see
if you were sitting in a tree on the front left side of the house.
Do not show any hidden details.
Your teacher will look at the following aspects of the drawing to give you marks:
• It has an appropriate heading. (1)
• It is made from the correct viewing point. (2)
• It shows all the improvements shown in your sketch. (1)
• It shows all the visible lines of the house. (1)
• It shows all vertical lines as vertical and all horizontal lines at 30˚. (2)
• It is neat. (1)
Total marks [15]

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 Homework

1. Ask your grandparents or old people in your community for advice. Tell them:
“I want to learn how to make changes to a house so that it will use less
electricity or fuel for heating in winter, and less electricity for cooling in summer.
Please tell me more about changes that are cheap and easy to make.”

Write down their advice below. You can also make sketches.

2. Gather materials that you can use to improve your model house, and bring it to
school next week. Some waste materials will work well. You do not have to use
the same materials on the model that you would use in real life. Also bring a
piece of corrugated cardboard that is at least as big as an A4 sheet.
If you do not bring these materials, you will not be able to show the
improvements on your model house.

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 Week 4
Make improvements to your model house (60 minutes)
Make: Improve your model house

Individual work
You want to show other people the different improvements that can be made
to the house, so that less energy will be needed to heat or cool the house. Some
improvements may be on the outside of the house. Other improvements may be
on the inside of the house. Some things may even be added on the ground around
the house.
Stick your model of a house on a big lat piece of cardboard using Prestik. The
lat piece of cardboard represents the ground around the house.
Now add or change things to the house so that it will use less energy. Use the
materials you brought from home to make the changes.
For each thing that you add or change to the model, make a small paper sticker
with a number on it, and stick it to the thing that you add or change. Write down
the numbers of all the changes on a piece of paper. For each change, say what its
purpose is and what it is made of. If you know the name of the thing, you can also
write it down. For example:

1. What is it made of in real life?

What is its purpose?
What is its name?

This piece of paper is called a legend. It explains to people what the different
things on your model are.
Total [20]

Evaluate your improvements to the house (60 minutes)

You will make an evaluation sheet to evaluate your own work, as well as the work
of two other learners who are not on the same team as you.
Evaluate each model objectively and fairly. So you should pretend that you are
evaluating the work of someone that you do not know. Do not give high marks to
yourself or others if the improvements to the house are not good or not enough.
Be prepared to explain why you gave a low, medium or high mark.

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 Evaluate: Make and use an evaluation sheet

1. Change each of the following criteria into a question. Then make a table with
all the questions. You will give a mark next to each question, from one to three.
• There should be at least two improvements on the inside of the house. The
more improvements there are, the better. But ignore changes to the model
house that will not reduce the amount of energy used.
• There should be at least one improvement on the outside of the house. The
more improvements there are, the better. Ignore changes that will not work.
• The improvements should be as cheap as possible, and easy to make in real
life. They should not require a lot of extra building to be done.
• It will be good if some of the improvements are made with natural materials
that can be found close by, or by re-using waste material.
• The improvements on the model should be neat. It should be easy to
understand what the improvements are just by looking at the model.
• The legend should give a clear explanation of what the improvements are.

Evaluation sheet for your own model

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 Evaluation sheet for the model of .....................................

Evaluation sheet for the model of .....................................

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 Week 5
Present your model of a low-energy house
Your team will give a presentation of your improvements to a house later this
week. The presentation should be between three and five minutes long. Each
member of your team should do a part of the presentation. The other learners in
the class can ask you questions after your presentation.

Prepare your presentation (30 minutes)

Team meeting

1. Decide which part of the presentation each one of you will do.
One of you should talk about the rough sketches, and the final isometric
projection drawing you made.
One of you should show a model and explain all the changes inside and
outside the model.
One of you should talk about the advice that old people gave you on how
to improve a house to save energy. You should also talk about how natural
materials can be used to improve a house.
If there is a fourth person in your group, he or she should talk about the
first plans you made during your team meeting in week three, and how you
improved or added to those plans later on.

2. Decide in what order you will give the different parts of the presentation. Who
will talk first, and who will talk next?
Write the parts of the presentation in the order that you will do them below,
and show who will do which part.

Individual work

1. Plan your own part of the presentation.

Use the space below to write notes about what you will do.
2. Homework: Practise your presentation.

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 Hints for presenting your work
• Stand up straight and look at the class when you speak.
• Do not write out everything that you will say. Rather make a list of the main
things you will talk about. This should not be more than five things. Your list
should not have full sentences, but only key words to remind you of what you
want to talk about.
• What you are telling the class is very important, because it can help people save
money and reduce the negative impact on the environment. Be proud of what
you tell the class and speak loudly and clearly.
• Use your sketches, drawings and model to point to things while you are talking.
This will help the class to understand what you are saying. Make sure they can
see the sketches, drawings and model clearly.
• You can also bring pictures from magazines or newspapers, or examples of
materials, and use that in your presentation.
• Know when it is your turn to speak.
• Keep to the time limit. It often helps to ask somebody else in the class to hold
up cards saying how much time you have left.

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 Presentations of all the teams to the class (90 minutes)
Listen well to the presentations of the other teams. They may have interesting
ideas that you did not think of. Write those ideas down below, to help you to
remember them when you design or improve your own house one day.

Enjoy your winter holiday! After the holiday, you will make things that work with
levers and gears.

180 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 2

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 Notes

CHAPTER 10 MINI-PAT: DESIGN A HOUSE TO 181

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182 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 2

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 Notes

CHAPTER 10 MINI-PAT: DESIGN A HOUSE TO 183

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 Notes

184 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 2

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CHAPTER 10 MINI-PAT: DESIGN A HOUSE TO 185

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 Notes

186 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 8 TERM 2

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