CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

A bridge is a structure built to span over physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley or

road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacles. Also, a bridge can be said to be a

structure used as a means of providing passage over an existing road, railway, canal, valley,

river, creek, an opening-gorge etc. The design of bridges varies depending on the function of the

bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is to be constructed, the material used to make it

and found available to build it.

Structural design of bridge is the allocating of adequate members to carry the load (both live and

dead load) on the structure safely with high degree of economy measures. The effects due to

changes in temperature, creep and shrinkage of the concrete and possibility of damage resulting

from overloading, local damages, abrasion, vibration, chemical attack and various of such similar

courses may have to be in mind during the design. Each elements of the structure is arranged in

such a way that the dead and the imposed loads are transmitted through the abutments and piers

to the foundation by the most suitable means in economy.

Bridges are classified according to the purpose which they serve or their function, such as

aqueduct, viaduct, highway, railway and footbridge. They are also classified according to the

materials from which they constructed such as timber, masonry, concrete, steel and pre-stressed.

They are also classified by the inter-span relationship, as simple, cantilever, continuous, arch

type, balanced cantilever, suspension bridge, rigid type etc.

1
1.2 Aim and Objectives

1.2.1 Aim

The aim of this project is to design a composite bridge using steel and reinforced concrete which

is structurally stable on River Ogun located along Oyo-Iseyin road, Oyo state.

1.2.2 Objectives

The main objectives of the design are to:

 Produce the design of a standard composite bridge that will meet up with all required

specifications

 Carry out the structural analysis of the bridge element using ultimate and serviceability

limit state design.

 Design a composite section for the bridge deck and the structural column.

 Design the piers, abutments, wing walls and the foundation for the bridge.

 Carry out all the design process with economy consideration.

1.3 Site Visit

Photographs of Sections of the Existing Bridge

Plate 1.1: the state of the existing hand rail.

2
Plate 1.2: the existing carriage way.

Plate 1.3: the bridge abutment.

The preliminary studies/investigations of the site at River Ogun were undertaken. From the site

investigation, a photograph of different part of the existing bridge was taken and was shown

above. Also, measurements of important element were taken as far as possible. The bridge span

is measured to be 45m, the width of the existing carriage way was measured to be 4m with no

provision for walkways, the height of the bridge from the water level was 7m. The bridge has

handrails of 1m high. The nature of the soil on site is mainly lateritic and forms the backfill of

the wing walls. The bed of the river is covered with igneous rock.

3
1.4 Problem Statement

The existing bridge on River Ogun (located along Oyo-Iseyin road, Oyo West Local Government

Oyo, Oyo State) is faced with various challenges which start from the section of the existing

bridge being a single lane bridge of 4m width. The bridge in its present state is too narrow

compare to the service it is expected to deliver. Due to the increase in the transportation demand

between the two connected town and growing numbers of the population, the bridge now fails to

meet its present transportation demand. The existing bridge is now old and weak in strength

which leads to some deformation in the bridge, this make it a risk for the users as they are

constantly being exposed to life threatening experience on the bridge. The bridge is narrow

without the provision for walkway for the highly growing number of pedestrians.

The bridge has no parapet which characterised modern bridge and the existing hand rail is gone.

Hence the safety of both vehicles and pedestrians is not guaranteed. The present status of the

bridge calls for urgent attention and hence a need for quick replacement.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This project work entails the structural design of the bridge only. Values of data such as soil

investigation and hydrological analysis are based on basic assumptions. These assumptions are

due basically to the high cost implication of data collection in bridge design.

However, the various basic ways for data collection for bridge design are discussed in this

project work subjected to further improvement.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background

The oxford English dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an old English word brycg,

of the same meaning, derived from the hypothetical proto-Germanic root brugjo. There are

cognates in other Germanic languages.

The first bridge were made by nature itself as simple as a log fallen across a stream or stones in

the river. The first bridge made by humans was probably spans of cut wooden logs or planks and

eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Some early Americans

used trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get from one place to another. A

common form of lashing sticks, logs and deciduous branches together involved the use of long

reeds or either harvested fibres woven together to form a connective rope capable of binding and

holding together the materials used in early bridges.

The Arkadiko bridge is one of the four Mycenaan corbel arch bridges part of a former network of

roads, designed to accommodate chariots, between Tirynes to Epidanros in the Peloponnese in

Greece. Dating to Greek Bronze Age (13th century BC) it is one of the oldest arch bridge still in

existence (Nelson and Roy, 1998.)

The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. The Romans build arch

bridges and aqueduct, an example is the Alcantara Bridge built over the river Tagus, the Romans

5
introduced the use of cement in bridge construction. The type of cement is called pozzolana,

consisted of water, lime, sand and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the

Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.

Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes

mountain of South America, just prior to Colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th

century, there were many innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich, Johannes

Grubermann and others. A major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of

the iron bridge in Coalbrookdale, England 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to

cross the river Severn (Brown and David, 2005.)

With industrial revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for
larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent
of steel which has a high tensile strength. Much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas
of Gustian Eiffel.

2.2 Types of Bridges

 Beam Bridges
 Cantilever Bridges
 Arch Bridges
 Suspension Bridges
 Cable-stayed Bridges
 Truss Bridges
 Movable Bridges
 Double Decked Bridges
 Floating Bridges
 Combination Bridges

6
2.2.1 Beam Bridges

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by abutments. Hence their structural

name ‘simply supported’. The beam supports may be natural land structures such as banks of

river or by constructed vertical poles called piers and abutments. When there is more than one

span, the intermediate supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges are simple logs

that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In the modern times, beam bridges are large

box steel girder bridges. Beam bridge spans typically do not exceed (76m) long, However the

span of Rio-Niterol Bridge (a box girder bridge) is 300m. The world longest beam bridge is Lake

Pontchar train causeway in Southern Louisiana in the United States, at 38.35km with individual

spans of 17m.

2.2.2 Cantilever Bridges

Cantilever Bridges are built using cantilever-horizontal Beams supported on only one end. Most

cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the

supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacles the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are

constructed using much same material and techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in

the action of the forces through the bridge. The largest cantilever bridge is the 549m Queber

Bridge in Quebec, Canada.

2.2.3 Arch Bridges

Arch bridges are characterized by their stability. Arch bridges have abutment at each end. The

weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either side. The earliest known Arch bridges

were built by the Greeks, and they include the Arkadiko Bridge.

7
With the span of 220m, the Solkan Bridge over the Soca River at Solkan in Slovenia is the

second largest stone bridge in the world and the largest railroad stone bridge. It was completed in

1905. Its arch which was constructed from of 5000 tonnes of stone blocks in just 18 days is the

second largest stone arch in the world surpassed by only the Friedens Brucke in plane and the

largest railroad stone arch.

Dubai in the united Arab Emirate is currently building Sheik Rasid bin Saheed crossing which is

scheduled for completion in 2012, when completed, it will be the largest arch bridge in the world

with a main span 667m long.

2.2.4 Suspension Bridges

Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of

ropes of ring covered with bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towns that are

attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor

of a lake or river. The largest suspension bridge in the world is the 3909m Akashi Kaiko Bridge

in Japan. Suspension bridge comes in various forms such as: simple suspension bridge, stressed

Ribbon Bridge, Under-spanned Suspension Bridge, suspended-deck suspension bridge and self

anchored suspension bridge.

2.2.5 Cable-Stayed Bridges

Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a cable-stayed

bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cable are proportionately shorter. The

first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher. The longest cable-

stayed bridge is the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China, the Pont de Normande

8
(Normandy Bridge) over the Seine River near Le Harve in France opened in 1995, with a span

length of 856m.

2.2.6 Truss Bridge

Truss bridge utilize strong, rigid framework that support those bridges over a span. Trusses are

created by fastening beams together in a triangular configuration. The truss framework

distributes the load of the bridge so that each beam shares a portion of the load. Beam, cantilever

and arch bridges may be constructed of trusses. Truss bridges can carry heavy loads and are

relatively lightweight. They are also less expensive to build. The Astorial Bridge over the

Colombia River in Oregon with a span of 376m is an example of truss bridge.

2.2.7 Movable Bridge

Movable bridges are designed to move out of the way of boats or other land of kinds of water

traffic, which would otherwise be too tall to fit. These type of bridges are generally electrically

powered.

The most common type of movable bridges are the bascule (draw bridge), vertical lift and swing

bridges. Modern bascule bridges usually have two movable spans that rise upward, opening in

the middle. A vertical lift bridge consist of a rigid deck frame held between two tall towers, the

bridge opens by hoisting the entire bridge road way upward between the towers in an elevator

like fashion. Swing bridges are mounted on a central pier and opens by swinging to one side,

allowing ship to pass.

2.2.8 Double Decked Bridges

Double decked bridges have two levels, such as the San Francisco-Oakland bay bridge with two

road levels. This type of bridges are constructed to create more access ways and to increase the

9
functionality of the bridge. Robert Stephenson’s high level bridge across the River Tyne in

Newcastle upon Tyne, completed in 1849 is an early example of double decked bridge, the upper

level carries a railway and the lower level is used for road traffic. This arrangement varies from

bridges to bridges according to the designer’s perspective.

2.2.9 Floating Bridges

Floating bridges are formed by fastening together sealed, floating containers called pontoons and

placing a roadbed on top of them. A pontoon typically contains many compartments such that if

leak occurs in a compartment, the pontoon will not sink. Some floating bridges are constructed

using boats or other floating devices rather than pontoon.

Floating bridges were originally developed and are most widely used as temporary structures for

military operations For everyday use, floating bridges are popular when deep water, bad riverbed

conditions or other conditions make it difficult to construct traditional bridge piers and

foundations.

2.2.10 Combination Bridges

Combination bridges are the type of bridge which combines several types of bridges or both

bridges and tunnels to form it section. For example, the Chisa Peak Bay Bridge-Tunnel in

Virginia includes two tunnels that are each 1.6km long along it 28km long from shore to shore.

2.3 Recent Face of Bridge Design

The major expansion of transportation networks in the twentieth century has been accompanied

by extensive bridge construction. At the end of the century, the field of bridge engineering

continues to grow and develop. Recent years have seen the construction of revolutionary new

10
bridges in various forms and shapes to show an exception degree of aesthetics and functionality,

various advances has been made in terms of materials and construction techniques. Development

of international codes and standards aimed at providing more durable and reliable structures.

The result of engineering researches and discoveries in the recent has lead to a distinct landmark

in bridge engineering. The use of composite materials for bridge sections, construction of long

span suspension and cable stayed bridges, reinforced concrete bridge section and the use of still

has a bridge material makes the new face of bridge engineering.

2.4 Introduction of Steel in Bridge Construction

The introduction of steel as a bridge construction material was to supply tensile strength for the

bridge as a supplement to concrete which is high in compressive strength but characterized with

low tensile strength. Until 1840, the construction material used was either cast iron or wrought

iron or a combination of both. In the early 1800s, cast irons were beginning to be replaced by

wrought iron and many of the early railway bridges were built of riveted wrought iron

construction.

In the late 1800s, steel begin to replace wrought iron and by early 1900s, wrought iron was no

longer available as steel proved to be a much more reliable material. In 1857, Weichsel Bridge

was the first large wrought iron girder railway bridge to be built in Germany and by 1870,

Kymijoki Railway Bridge became the first 3-span steel truss bridge built in Finland, originally

for a railway, the riveted bridges was converted to carry road traffic in 1923 and in 1870 first

major steel cantilever railway bridge in the world over the Forth near Edinburgh, Scotland was

constructed.

11
Composite construction making the best use of concrete and steel together as shown to be the

economic ideal for span up to 65m. The change was initiated by a series of design steel

alternative proposal to conforming concrete viaduct design which showed that steel was

competitive in economy as bridge construction material.

2.5 Components of Steel Bridge

2.5.1 Abutments

These are reinforced concrete structure acting as a support to a beam girder and also

retain that pressure from the soil.

2.5.2 Beam Girders

These are structures forming the spanning and support member in bridges.

2.5.3 Piers

These are steel vertical structure which acts as column in a steel bridge. They may take

any form or shape according to the design specification and loading conditions.

2.5.4 Bridge Deck

These are the flat horizontal part of the bridge structure which carries the traffic and the

railway.

2.5.5 Bridge Bearing

These are structures like plinth, but lies between the plinth and the beam gardens which

the plinth supports.

12
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The general background of bridge engineering has being enumerated in the preceding chapter of

this technical work. However, this project this focused on the design of a composite bridge using

steel and reinforced concrete section over River Ogun (as a case study), this chapter thus, the

steps taken in the design of various component of the bridge.

This will entails the design procedures and method employed in the design process from the

superstructure’s component through the abutments wing walls and piers to the substructure and

the foundations. The section selection for the steel section will be done with respect to the

standard in the steel designer’s manual, the concrete section will be designed using BS5950 and

the entire design decision will be according to BS5400 specifications.

3.2 Design Standards and Specification

Most countries have established bridge or structural design codes which specify the size, type

and configuration of loads which the structure will be able to carry safely during its design

duration. Various codes has been adopted in structural design, such codes includes: AASHTO,

2002 (Association) used in USA, the BS code used in United Kingdom and Euro code used

across the Europe. International design guidelines are also available e.g. Oversea road note 9

(TRL, 1992) which is applicable for the design of small span bridge.

In Nigeria, highway bridge design is carried out using either the BS code or AASHTO

specification.

13
 Steels to BS EN10025 of grade S355 are usual for bridges as they offered a better cost to

strength ratio than grade S275.

3.3 Traffic Loadings

Highway bridge design are currently design for the HA loading “HIGHWAY ‘A’ LOADING” (a

uniformly distributed loading plus knife edge load applied to each traffic lane) together with HB

loading “as normal vehicle loading” for structures carrying main highways. HB loadings also

consists of a standard arrangement of sixteen wheels (Fig. 11 BS5400: part two) HA and HB

loadings are deemed to allow for dynamic and impact effect. For footways the normal loadings is

5kN/m2 reduced to 4kN/m2 where the highway is also loaded. It is further reduced to longer

loaded length, similarly to HA load.

One unit of HB loading is a 10kN/axle loads (2.5kN/wheel) (6.3.1 BS 5400: part two). Bridges

are generally designed for HA loading and checked for the effect of a specified number of unit

HB loadings (6.3 BS 5400: part two). Nigeria FMW specified the use of 45 units for bridges

design.

3.3.1 Specification of Numbers of Notional Lanes

The number of notional lanes is determined for the purpose of structural analysis using the

following criteria (3.2.9.3.1 BS 5400: part two)

Carriage Way Width (m) Number of Notional Lanes

4.6 up to and including 7.6 2

Above 7.6 up to and including 11.4 3

14
Above 11.4 up to and including 15.2 4

Above 15.2 up to and including 19.0 5

Above 19.0 up to and including 22.8 6

According to the specification and standards, lane width should not be taken less than 2.3m and

not more than 3.8m wide.

For the purpose of this project work, the National lane width is taken to be 4.0m.

3.4 Method of Analysis

The section describes the method use for the analysis of various component of the bridge and the

method for each test necessary to be carried out to aid the serviceability of the bridge.

3.5 Hydrologic Analysis

There were two objectives for carrying out hydrologic analysis for a bridge site:

1. To derive the value for the “high water mark” that could be used in determination of

bridge dimension based on a hundred years events.

2. To determine hundred years flows at a given location for a culvert selection.

The procedures below is followed in the hydrologic analysis of a bridge site

i. Complete data applicable to estimating flood at site, including both the historical flood

and maximum floods record.

ii. Plot flood frequency curve for the site.

iii. Determine the distribution for the flow and velocities at site for the flood discharge to be

considered in design of structure

iv. Plot stage discharge curve for site.

15
3.5.1 Run Off (or Storm Water)

Runoff is the excess rainfall that does not soak into the soil but flows into surface waters or the

maximum flood discharge at any bridge site. The run off can be estimated by any of the

following methods:

i. By installing rain gauge, at least one of which should be self recording rain gauge.

ii. By installing a temporary rain gauge at or near the bridge site for as long period as

possible prior to design.

All bridges, except very large ones, are designed for flood frequency of 50 years. The foundation

and the protective works of a bridge are designed for flood design of high magnitude than the

design discharge. For this reason the design discharge may be increased by certain percentages.

The following methods can be used for flood estimation:

i. USGS Regional Regression Equation

The USGS equation was based on the watershed area, average annual precipitation, percent

cover and regionally based constants

QR = aAb1(Pav)b2Fb3 (3.1)

Where:

QR = the peak flow for recurrence interval R (R = 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years)

Pav = the average annual precipitation in inches for the basin.

F = the percentage of the unit normally covered by the forest vegetation (i.e. 50% = 50)

a, b1, b2, and b3 = regional variable taken from WSA manual.

ii. By Use of Dicken’s formula

Q = CA3/2 (3.2)

16
Where:

C = constant depending upon the topographic.

iii. By Using Ryvis Formula

Q = CA2/3 (3.3)

iv. By Inghs Formula

𝟏𝟐𝟑
Q= (3.4)
√(𝑨+𝟏𝟎.𝟑𝟔)

Where:

Q = discharge in (m3/s)

A = catchment area in (m2).

However, for the purpose of this technical work, the Liod-Davies method shall be used. As this

is the recommended method by the N.F.M.W highway design manual 1:1973. In this method,

runoff is related to rainfall intensity by the formula.

Q = CIA (3.5)

Where:

Q = Quantity of runoff in m3/sec

C = coefficient of runoff

I = intensity of rainfall expressed in mm/hr

A = area of water shed in km2

𝐾𝑛
I= (3.6)
(𝑡+𝑎)𝑏

Where:

I = rainfall intensity in mm/hr

17
t = time of concentration in min.

a and b are station constants

n = storm frequency in years.

Kn = A and B log10 𝑛 (3.7)

A and B are station constants

Station Constants

A b A B

Lagos (Apapa) 0.33 0.861 2.18 1.44

Kano 0.5 1.032 2.95 1.91

Ikeja 0.6 0.952 3.28 2.34

Table 3.0: Rainfall station constants

0.78(𝐿)0.77
t=
√5

Where:

L = length of water shed in km

S = slope of water shed area

A minimum time of concentration of 20 minutes is recommended for design except for inlets

where a minimum time of 5 minutes is used.

3.6 Hydraulic Analysis

The procedure below is followed in the hydraulic analysis of a bridge site:

i. Compute back water and main velocities at bridge opening for various trials bridge

lengths and selected discharges.

18
 ii. Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of the proposal structure.

3.7 The Superstructure

The quality of the superstructure is evaluated considering different criteria: technical,

fundamental, economic, construction and in addition, material system and the geometric

dimensions of the bridge. Design of bridge superstructure generally consists of the design of the

bridge component like:

1. The bridge deck

2. Girders

3. Beams

4. Shear connectors

5. Parapet

6. Abutment
7. The bearings

The details below can be used as a guide in choosing the type of superstructure.

TYPE SPAN PROPOSAL REMARK

Slab ≤9m Straight simply supported Require more reinforcing steel and
structural concrete than

Slab ≤ 12m Straight continuous span Guide type.

Design details and form works less
expensive.
T – Beams 12m to 18m Straight simply supported T – Beams require more
and continues span complicated formwork. The girder
thickness for concrete varies from
350mm to 550mm and controlled
by the required horizontal spacing

19
 of the positive moment
reinforcement. Optimum lateral
spacing of girder is typically 1.8 to
3.0 for a minimum cost of
formwork and structural materials.
Box girder 15m to 36m Straight and curve shaped The girder spacing is usually 1.5
bridge bridge. times the structural depth. Beyond
this range is economical to consider
another type of bridge like post
tension girder or steel girder
superstructures. The high tensional
strength of box girder make it
particularly suitable for sharp
curve, alignment, skewed piers, and
abutment super – elevation and
transition such as ramp structures.

Steel girder or 7m to 36m

arch bridges.
Table 3.1: guide for choosing bridges (Source: Engr. Lawal, September 2009).

3.7.1 Loads on Superstructure.

The loading for the design of the superstructure of the bridge either acting alone or in

combination of each of each other’s are shown in table 1 of BS5400 and listed below. The

serviceability limit state SLS and ultimate limit state (ULS) are combined appropriately as listed

in the table. Some of the loadings effects are considered on the global bridge during the design.

20
The loads on superstructure are:

Clause number Load

5.1 Dead

5.2 Superimposed dead

5.3 Wind load

5.4 Temperature

5.6 Differential settlement

5.9 Erection temporary loads

6.2 Highway bridges live load. HA or HB

6.8 Vehicle collision load with bridge parapets.

7.0 Foot or walkway live load and parapet load.

Table 3.2: relevant clauses for loading

Some of the loadings effects are considered on the global bridge during the design. i.e. loading

like earth pressure (clause 5.8) and tractive effective (braking) (clause 6.6)

3.7.2 Traditional Minimum Depths for Constant Depth Superstructures.

Bridge types Minimum Depth (Including Deck)

Simple spans Continuous

21
 1.2(S+ 3000) (S + 3000)
Slabs ≥ 165mm
30 30

T – Beams 0.070L 0.065L

Box – girders beams 0.060L 0.055L

Pedestrian Structure beams 0.035L 0.033L

 S (mm) is the slab span length and L (mm) is the span length.

 When variable depth members are used, values may be adjusted to account for change in

relative stiffness of positive and negative section.

3.7.3 Limiting Computed Deflection (AASHO 2.5.2.6.2)

Vehicular load general span length/800

Vehicular and /or pedestrian load span length/1000

Vehicular load on cantilever arms span length/300

Vehicular and / or pedestrian loads on cantilever span length/1000 arms.

Deflection of bridges can be estimated in two steps

i. Instantaneous deflections which occur at the first loading

ii. Long-time deflections which occur with time due to the creep and shrinkage of the

concrete.

22
3.8 Abutments and the Foundation

The abutment is a component of the substructure supporting the superstructure of the bridge. In

the analysis and design of the abutment, it is treated as a cantilever retaining wall which relies on

the bending strength of the cantilevered slab above the base to resist the forces.

The material for construction, the design and construction techniques, as well as the drainage are

those factors that must be considered in the choice and design of the abutment.

The following steps are involved in the analysis and design of the abutment:

 Calculation of the horizontal pressure of the earth.

 Assumption of the width of the base and determination of the factors of safety against

overturning and sliding.

 Calculation of the pressure on the ground under the base and comparing this with the

permissible bearing pressure.

 Calculation of the bending moment on the cantilever wall, the bending moment and

sharing forces on the base.

 Determination of the thickness and reinforcement of the wall and base.

The above procedures shall be illustrated in chapter four of this report.

3.8.1 Scouring Depth Determination

One important parameter in fixing the bed of the bridge foundation is the depth of scour. Lacey’s

formula is used to determine normal depth of scour of alluvial rivers via:

𝑄
D=0.4753 √𝑓 (3.8)

23
Where,

D= normal depth of scour (m) below HFL corresponding to the design flood discharge Q.

Q = design flood discharge m3/s

F= Lacey’s silt factor for a representative sample of the bed material and the values are gotten

from standard table.

The scour depth calculated from the above formula gives the normal depth. Along the pier

foundations, aprons and mole-heads, this depth is likely to be greater. The maximum depths

which depend on the nature of river are obtainable from standard table.

3.8.2 Afflux (Back Water)

This is an increase in the level of water caused by an obstruction (e.g. abutments and piers) in the

river bed at the upstream side.

Moleswothn’s formula for determining afflux is given by:

𝑉2 𝐴 2
h= {(17.88) + (0.01524)} {(𝑎) − 1} (3.9)

Where,

h = Afflux in (m)
v = velocity in –obstructed stream in (m/s)
a = obstructed sectional area of the river in (m2)
A = un-obstructed sectional area of the river in (m2).

Afflux may be taken as 0.6m in alluvial region and 0.9m to 1.2m in steep reaches of rivers with

boulders and rocky bed for purpose of rough calculation

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 DESIGN INFORMATION

ELEMENTS INFORMATION

Relevant Code BS. 5400, Part 1: 1988, BS. 5400, Part 2: 1978, BS. 5400, Part 4: 1990,

EC2 (EN1992-1-1), EC3 (EN1993-1-1), EC4 (EN1994-1-1), BS. 8110,

Part 1: 1997 and BS. 8110, Part3: 1985

Design Stresses fcu, characteristics strength of concrete = 30 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2

fy, characteristics strength of steel = 410 N/mm2

Exposure Condition Mild for all elements

Concrete cover = 40mm

Design Data Ku = 0.156

𝑀
K=F 2
Cu bd

𝑘
la = Lever Arm = 0.5 +√0.25 − (0.9) ≤ 0.95

𝑀 𝑀
As = Or
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87fY Lad

Z = Lad

fs =
2
3
Fy
AS Required
AS Prov
. 1
𝛽°
, 𝛽° = 1.0 (Factor Of Safety)

477−𝑓𝑠
M.F = 0.55 + 𝑀 Modification Factor
120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑2

𝑉
Shear Stress v = 𝑏𝑑

𝐴𝑠 𝑣 𝑉+0.4− 𝜀𝑠 𝑉𝑐
=
𝑆𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑣

25
 ELEMENT INFORMATION

𝑁
fcu bh

𝑀
fcu bh2

Steel beam section At ultimate limit state:

(i) Bending: section modulus

𝑀𝐸𝑑
Wpl,y =
𝑓𝑦

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = ultimate design moment

𝑓𝑦 = design strength of the steel

(ii) Shear: Shear Area

Ar = Aa – 2btf + (tw + 2r) tf

Aa = Cross-sectional Area of the steel beam

b = flange length

tw = thickness of the web

tf = thickness of flange

r = radius of roof fillet

Av = d x tw

Design plastic shear resistance:

Ar fy
Vpl, Rd = 𝛾
𝑚𝑜 √3

𝛾𝑚𝑜 = 1.0 (material partial factor of safety)

At serviceability limit state:

(i) deflection δ at the mid-span for uniformly distributed load is given

26
ELEMENTS INFORMATION

by:

5𝑤𝑙4
δ = 384𝐸
𝑎 𝐼𝑎

w = serviceability load per meter at construction

L = the beam’s span

Ea = the Elastic modulus of the steel

= 210kw/mm2

Ia = the second moment of area of the steel section

27
 REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.2 Bridge Deck Analysis

Bulk material weights:

i) Concrete 24.00 kN/m3

ii) Asphalt 23.35 kN/m3

iii) Earth 20.00 kw/m3

Live loads brief

BS 5400: Part 2 1978, i) Footway 5.00 kN/m3

sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, ii) HB (45 units) 450.00 kN/axle

6.3 and 7.1.1 iii) HA UDL 30.00kN

iv) HA KEL 120.00kN

v) Construction load 1.50 kN/m3

1.5m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 1.5m

Loadings:

Foot path (parapet walkway)

Assume slab thickness of 250mm

Self weight of the foot path slap = Gk

Gk = 0.25 × 1.5 × 24

= 9.0kN/m Gk = 9.0kN/m

28
 REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Live load for foot path slab Qk = 50kN

Live load for meter run of the foot path slab = 50kN/m Qk = 50kN/m

For serviceable limit state,

Live load on the foot way Q1k = 5.0kN/m Q1k = 5.0kN/m

B5 5400 Part 2: Therefore, Design load:

1978, clause 7.1.1 = 1.5Gk + 1.5Qk + 1.25Q1k

and BS 5400 Part = 1.15 × 9.0 + 1.5 × 50 + 1.25 ×5.0

2: 1978 Table 1. n = 91.6kN/m n = 91.6kN/m

Carriage way:

Slab thickness = 250mm

Self weight of slab = 0.25 × 1.0 × 24

= 6.0kN/m

Therefore, Dead Load Gk = 6.0kN/m Gk = 6.0kN/m

Imposed Dead Load; G1k

Asphalt (50mm) = 0.05 × 23.35 × 4.0

= 4.76kN/m

Assume 35mm future overlay

= 0.035 × 23.35 × 4.0

= 3.27kN/m

Total Imposed Dead Load G1k

= 7.94kN/m G1k = 7.94kN/m

29
 REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Live Loads (HA loadings):

8.0
Notional lane width = = 4.0m
2
BS 5400 part 2:
HA = 30kN/m (for loaded length up to 30m)
1978, Table 13
UDL = 10.5kN/m2 for HA with two notational lane.
clause 6.2.1

KEL = 120kN (per notional lane)

BS 5400 – 2:
The KEL per meter run of the notional lane
1978 clause 6.2.1
120𝑘𝑁
KEL = = 30kN/m
4.0𝑚

Total live load = UDL + KEL

= (10.5 × 4.0) + 30 Qk = 72kN/m

= 72kN/m

The total design load on carriage way

= 1.15Gk + 1.75G1k + 1.5Qk

= 1.15 (6.0) + 1.75 (7.94) + 1.5 (72)

= 128.80kN/m

Load due to parapet and handrail

Self weight of parapet wall

= 0.25 × 0.5 × 24 = 3.0kN/m

Self weight of handrail

= 0.1 × 1.0 × 24 = 2.4kN/m

Total = 5.4kN/m

30
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Design load = 1.15 * 5.4 = 6.21KN/m

Design load for a meter length = 6.21 * 1.0 = 6.21KN

Loading arrangement:

91.6KN/m 91.6KN/m
6.21KN 6.21KN
128.80KN/m

A B C D E F G

1.5m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 1.5m

m m m m m m

Analysis of moments on the deck slab :

For support A and G from each end

𝑤𝑙 2
M = PL +
2

91.6∗1.52
M = 6.21*1.5 +
2

= 112.37 KN/m

Using the moment distribution method to analyze the other

part of the slab

B C D E F

2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m

m m m m

Assume all ends to be fixed:

31
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

The fixed End moments (FEM):

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 −𝑤𝑙 2
𝑀𝐵𝐶 = 𝑀𝐶𝐷 = 𝑀𝐷𝐸 = 𝑀𝐸𝐹 =
12

−128.80∗ 22
=
12

= - 42.93KN/m

Stiffness factors :

3𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
𝑘𝐵𝐶 = 𝑘𝐸𝐹 = = = 1.5EI
𝐿 2

4𝐸𝐼 4𝐸𝐼
𝑘𝐶𝐷 = 𝑘𝐷𝐸 = = = 2EI
𝐿 2

Distribution factors :

𝑘𝐵𝐶 1.5𝐸𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.43
𝑘𝐶𝐵 + 𝑘𝐶𝐷 1.5𝐸𝐼+ 2𝐸𝐼

𝑘𝐶𝐷 2𝐸𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.57
𝑘𝐶𝐷 + 𝑘𝐶𝐵 2𝐸𝐼+ 1.5𝐸𝐼

𝑘𝐸𝐷 2𝐸𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.57
𝑘𝐸𝐷 + 𝑘𝐸𝐹 2𝐸𝐼+ 1.5𝐸𝐼

𝑘𝐸𝐹 1.5𝐸𝐼
𝐷𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = = 0.43
𝑘𝐸𝐹 + 𝑘𝐸𝐷 1.5𝐸𝐼+ 2𝐸𝐼

32
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

SHEAR FORCES:

Span BC: 128.80KN/m 23.14KNm

6.21KN
91.6KN/m

B C

1.5m 2.0m
m 𝑅𝐵 Rc
ΣMc = 0

128.80∗ 22
2.0𝑅𝐵 - 6.21* 3.5 – 91.6 * 1.5 * 2.75 – + 23.14
2

634.045
𝑅𝐵 =
2.0

𝑅𝐵 = 317.02KN

ΣV = 0

𝑅𝐶 = 6.21 + 91.6 * 1.5 + 128.80 * 2 – 317.02

= 6.21 + 137.4 + 257.6 – 317.02

= 84.19KN

Span CD:
128.80KN/m
23.14KNm 52.83KNm

2.0m
Rc 𝑅𝐷

33
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

ΣV = 0

𝑅𝐷 = 128.80 * 2.0 – 84.19

= 168.41KN

128.80KN/m
52.83KNm 23.13KNm

2.0m
RD 𝑅𝐸

ΣV = 0

𝑅𝐸 = 128.80 * 2.0 – 168.41

= 89.19 KN

4.2.1 DECK DESIGN

Diameter of bars = 20mm

Concrete Cover = 40mm

Slab Thickness = 250mm

Effective Depth, d = 250 – 40 – 10 = 200mm

Ultimate moment of Resistance, Mu = 0.156 𝑓𝑐𝑢 b𝑑 2

= 0.156 * 30 * 1000 * 2002

= 187.2 * 106 Nmm

34
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.2.2 Bending Reinforcement

At the Support : 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 112.37KNm

𝑀
K =
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2

112.37 ∗ 106
=
30∗1000∗ 2002

= 0.0936 K = 0.0936

0.0936
Lever arm (la) = 0.5 + √0.25 − 0.9
la = 0.88
= 0.88 < 0.95

Z = lad

= 0.88 * 200
Z = 176mm
= 176mm

𝑀
𝐴𝑆 =
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍

112.37∗106
𝐴𝑆 =1789 mm2
= = 1789mm2
0.87∗410∗176

Provide T16mm @ 100mm centres

T16 @100mm

(𝐴𝑆 = 2010mm2/m) centres

provided

Distribution Reinforcement:

𝐴𝑆 = 0.13%bh

0.13∗1000∗250
= = 325mm2
100

35
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Provide T12mm @ 200mm centres T12 @200mm

(𝐴𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 566mm2/m) Centres

At the midspan:

M = 52.83KNm

52.83 ∗ 106 K = 0.044

K= = 0.044
30∗1000∗ 2002

0.044
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − = 0.95 la = 0.95
0.9

Z = 0.95 * 200 = 190mm Z = 190mm

52.83 ∗ 106
𝐴𝑆 = = 779.51mm2
0.87∗410∗ 190

Provide T12 @ 125mm Centres

T12 @125mm
(𝐴𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 905mm2 )
centres
Distribution Reinforcement :

0.13∗1000∗250
𝐴𝑆 = 0.13% bh =
325

= 325mm2
T12 @200mm
Provide T12mm @ 200mm Centres
centres
(𝐴𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 566mm2/m)

4.2.3 Deflection check

𝑀 52.83∗ 106
= = 1.32N/mm2
𝑏𝑑 2 100∗ 2002

2 779.51
ƒs = * 410 * = 235.43N/mm2 ƒs =
3 905

235.43N/mm2

36
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

477+235.43 M.F = 1.46

M.F = 0.55 + = 1.46
120 (0.9+1.32)

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
= 1.46 * 26 = 37.96
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 2000

= = 10
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 200

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 ˃ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

Since ,
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

then deflection is okay.

4.2.4 Check for shear

Vmax=
Maximum Shear Force, Vmax = 317.02KN
317.02KN

317.02∗103
Shear Stress, v =
100∗200
v = 1.58
= 1.58 N/mm2 N/mm2
100As 100∗2010
ρ= = = 1.005
𝑏𝑑 1000∗200
Table 8. BS.5400 Vc=
Vc = 0.673 N/mm2
Part 4: 1990 0.673N/mm2

Table 9. BS.5400 Ԑs = 1.25

Depth factor, Ԑs for d = 200 = 1.25
Part 4: 1990
For v ˃ Ԑs = 1.25 * 0.673 = 0.841
Table 7. BS.5400
Asv b(v+0.4− ԐsVc)
Part 4: 1990 =
𝑆𝑣 0.87 𝑓𝑦 𝑉

37
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Using 12mm bars :

2 ( 𝛱∗122 )
𝐴𝑆𝑉 = = 226mm
4

226∗0.87∗410
δv =
1000(1.58+0.4−0.841)

= 70.77mm
𝐴𝑠𝑣 226
δv min = =
0.0012𝑏 0.0012∗1000

= 188mm

Provide T12mm @ 175mm centres as links throughout

the section.

38
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.3 Longitudinal Steel Beams

1.5m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 2.0m 1.5m

Loadings:

Dead loads:

Slab weight = 0.25 × 11 × 24 = 66kN/m

Weight of the cantilever section

= 24 (2 × 0.25 × 1.5) = 18kN/m

Hand railings = 24 (2 × 1.0 × 0.21) = 10.05kN/m

Total dead load on the steel beam

= 94.05kN/m

NB: include calculation for the steel girder section.

Self weight of the steel girder beam

= 77 (5 × (0.02 + 0.015))

= 13.475kN/m

Total dead load = 107.56kN/m

107.56
Dead load on each beam = 5

= 21.51kN/m

Imposed loads:

HA knife edge load (KEL):

120kN spread across the width of the lane

39
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

No of notional lane = 3

Total KEL = 3 × 120 = 360kN

360
Total KEL/ Beam per span = 5

= 72kN/m

Foot path live loads = 5.0kN/m2

= 5.0 × 1.5 × 2

= 15kN/m

HA uniformly distributed load across bridge, for bridge span

= 15.00m

Equivalent load (UDL) = 10.50kN/m2

10.5 ×8.0
Load per beam = 5

= 16.8kN/m

Therefore, total UDL = 15 + 16.8

= 31.8kN/m

Ultimate load on one beam

= 1.0 (21.51) + 1.5 (72) + 1.5 (31.8)

= 177.21kN/m

40
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.3.1 Span Girder

D = depth of the steel section = 1.5m

11.0
Average girder spacing = = 2.2m
5

Flange and web sizes:

Girder spacing factors

Kaf = 0.65 (generally)

Ktw = 0.81

Ktf = 0.61 top flange span

SPAN A

L = 1.25 × 15 = 18.75

𝐿 18.75
Therefore, = = 12.5
𝐷 1.5

𝐿
Assume = 15
𝐷

Top flange, Aft = Af × Kaf

500 × 20mm
= 0.009 × 0.61 = 0.0055m2

Bottom flange, Afb = Af × Kaf

500 × 20mm
= 0.009 × 0.65 = 0.0059m2

Web, tw = tw × Ktw
10mm web
= 10 × 0.81 = 8.1mm

Aw = 0.008 × 0.81

= 0.0065m2

41
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

SPAN B

Span Girder

L = 15m
𝐿 15
= 1.5 = 10
𝐷

Top flange Aft = Af × Kaf

500 × 20mm
= 0.009 × 0.61 = 0.0055mm2

Bottom flange Afb = Af × Kaf

500 × 20mm
= 0.009 × 0.65 = 0.0059mm2

Web, tw = tw × Ktw

= 10 × 0.81 = 8.1mm

SPAN C

SPAN C = SPAN A (Both End Span)

500 × 20mm
Therefore, Top flange Aft = 0.0055m2
500 × 20mm
Bottom flange Afb = 0.0059m2
10mm
Web, tw = 10 × 0.81

PIER GIRDER

Assume L = 15m at both support

𝐿 15
Therefore, 𝐷 = 1.5 = 10

Top flange, Aft = Af × Kaf

= 0.015 × 0.61 = 0.0092m2

400 × 35mm
Bottom flange, Afb = Af × Kaf
500 × 35mm

42
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

= 0.016 × 0.65 = 0.0104m2 500 ×35mm

Web, tw = tw × Ktw

= 16.5 × 0.81 = 13.37mm 15mm

STEEL WEIGHT:

SPAN A: L = 1.25 × 15 = 18.75m

SPAN B: L = 15m

SPAN C: L = 1.25 ×15 = 18.75m

1
𝐿14 + 𝐿24 + − − 𝐿𝑛4 4
Mean span = [ ]
𝑛

1
(18.75)4 + 154 + (18.75)4 4
=[ ]
3

247192.38+ 50625 0.25

=[ ]
3

297817.38 0.25
=[ ]
3

𝐿 17.75
Therefore, = = 11.83 (coverall unit weight)
𝐷 1.5

Kg/m2 = kg/m2 × kw

= 140×1.18 (2.2m spacing)

= 165.2kg/m2

165.2
Total steel weight = (15 + 15 + 15) × 11
1000

= 69.384 tonnes

= 69384kg.

43
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.3.2 Longitudinal Steel Beam Section

The properties of the universal I. section beam are:

B

d
D t

T b

Serial size of the beam = 1500 × 500 × 513kg/m3

Depth of section = 1500.0mm

Width of section = 500.0mm

Web thickness t = 10.0mm

Flange thickness T = 20.0mm

Root radius r = 24.1mm

Depth between fillets d = 1411.8mm

𝑏
Ratio for local buckling flange 𝑇 = 12.50

𝑑
Web 𝑡 = 141.2

Area of the section A = 341cm2

4.3.3 Ultimate Limit State design:

Mosley and
Bending: section modulus
Bungey, 𝑀𝐸𝑑
Wpl, y =
𝑓𝑦

44
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Reinforced Med = Ultimate Design Moment

Concrete Design Med = 0.08wl2

= 0.08 × 177.21 × 15
MEd= 3189.78kNm
= 3189.78kNm

fy = Design Strength Of The Steel

For The Steel Grade 50

Design Strength = 355N/mm2

3189.78 × 106
Wpl, y = 355

= 8985.29N/mm

Shear:

Shear Area (Ar)

Ar = Aa – 2btf + (Tw + 2r) Tf

= 34100 – 2 × 500 × 20 + (10 + 2 × 24.1) 20

= 34100 – 20000 + 1164

= 34100 – 21164 Ar = 12936mm2

= 12936mm2

Design Plastic Shear Resistance

𝐴𝑟 𝑓𝑦
Vpl, Rd =
𝛾𝑚𝑜 √3

12936 ×355
Vpl, Rd =
1.0 ×√3

45
 REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

12936 ×355
=
1.732

= 2651kN

4.3.4 Serviceability Limit State

Deflection δ at the mid-span:

5𝑤𝐿4
δ =
384𝐸𝑎 𝐼𝑎

5 ×177.21 ×103 × 10−3 ×5.0625 ×1016

=
384 ×210 ×103 ×7.19 × 1013

4.485628 ×1019
=
5.798016 × 1021

= 0.00774mm
Simplicity design 4.3.5 Slenderness of the Beam
to BS 5400, item 𝑙𝑒
λLT = ηv
𝑟𝑦
12
le = effective length
ry = the radius of the gyration of the beam about y-axis

η = factor which depends on the distribution of the bending

movement along the beam

v = factor dependant on the shape of the beam, is taken

conservatively as 1.0
le = k1 k2 ke L

L = span of the beam = 15m

k1 = 0.85

k2 = 1.0

46
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

ke = 1.0

le = 0.85 × 1.0 × 1.0 × 15

= 12.75m
12.75
λlt = ×1×1
1.5

= 8.5

4.3.6 Expansion Joint

Total length of the beam = 15000mm

Maximum temperature difference allowance

Δt = 40oC

Coefficient of linear expansion for steel

αC = 13.0 × 10-6 per oC

increase in length due to expansion,

Δl = αC × L × Δt

= 13.0 × 10-6 × 15000 × 40

= 7.8mm

≅ 8mm

i.e. provide 4mm expansion joint in each end.

47
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.3.7 Shear Connectors

1.5D

D= 20mm

20mm

25mm

500mm

𝜋𝑑2
0.8𝑓𝑦
4
Design shear resistance Pu =
𝛾𝑟

γr = the partial safety factor = 1.25

d = diameter of the shank of the steel = 200mm

fy = ultimate tensile strength of the steel = 500N/m2

(𝜋 × 202 )
0.8 × 500 ×
4
Pu =
1.25

= 100530.96N

= 100.53kN

48
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Therefore, Pu for 20mm shear steel = 100.53kN for grade 40

concrete
Design Resistance of each shear steel.
𝑃𝑢
=
𝛾𝑚

γm = partial factor for material

At SLS, γm = 1.85
BS 5400: Part C
𝑃𝑢 100.53
= = 54.34kN
𝛾𝑚 1.85

At ULS, γm = 1.40

𝑃𝑢 100.53
= = 71.81kN
𝛾𝑚 1.4

100.53kN ≥ 71.81kN

Therefore, the shear connector is okay.

Provide 20mm shear steel at 150mm centres

Height of shear steel 100mm

49
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.4 Design of Piers

4.4.1 Cross Beam (Capping Beam)

926.37KN/m

2.25m 5.3om 2.25m

9.80m

Loadings:

Load from the longitudinal steel beam:

= 177.21 × 5 = 886.05kN/m

Self weight of the Beam = (100 × 1.2 × 1.4 × 24)

= 40.32kN/m

Total load on the cross beam = 926.37kN/m

Reactions on the pier due to the applied load,

𝑤𝑙 2 926.37 ×9.80
R1 = R2 = =
2 2

= 4539.21kN

Moments on the beam:

𝑤𝑙 2 926.37 ×9.802
Overhanging moments: = =
2 2

= 2344.87kNm

Moment at the mid-span Mmax

Mmax occurs at the point of zero shear

926.37 – R1 = 0. Therefore, R1 = 926.37x

50
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4539.21
x =
926.37
= 4.8999m
4.89992
Mx = 926.37 × - 4539.21 (4.8999 – 2.25)
2
= 11120.6179 – 12028.4526
= - 907.83kNm

Shear forces:

VOA = 926.37 × 2.25 = 2084.33kN

VAB = 4539.21 – 2084.33

= 2454.87kN

2344.87kNm 2344.87kNm

2454.87kN 907.83kNm
2084.33kN

2454.87kN
2454.87kN

51
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.4.2 Design for Bending Reinforcement

Moment at the support = 2344.87kNm

2344.87 ×106 k = 0.0329

k= = 0.0542
30 × 1000 ×12002

0.0542
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − ( )
0.9

= 0.94 la = 0.94
z = 0.94 × 1200 = 1128mm

2344.87 ×106
As = = 5827.82mm2
0.87 × 410 ×1128
10T32 top bars
Provide 10 T32mm Top Bars (As provided = 64320mm2)

At mid-span, M = 907.83kNm

907.87 × 106
k = 30 ×1000 × 12002 = 0.0210

0.0210
la = 0.5 + √0.25 – 0.9

= 0.97 ˃ 0.95
Table9
z = 0.95 × 1200 = 1140mm
BS5400: Part Vc=0.234N/mm2
907.87 × 106 2
As = 0.87 ×410 ×1140 = 2232.53mm
4: 1990
Provide 8T25mm bars bottom (As prov = 2810mm2)
Table7 𝜉 s = 0.82
4.4.3 Shear Reinforcement
BS5400: Part 𝜉 s Vc = 0.192
Shear force, Vmax = 2454.87kN
4: 1990
2454.87 × 103
Shear stress, V = = 2.05N/mm2
1000 ×1200

100𝐴𝑠 100 ×3930

= 1000 ×1200 = 0.234
𝑏𝑑

52
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

VC = 0.234N/mm2

Depth factor, 𝜉 s for d = 1200 = 0.82

For v ˃ 𝜉 s Vc = 0.82 × 0.2344 = 0.192

𝐴𝑠𝑣 𝑏(𝑣 +0.4 − 𝜉sVc

=
𝑆𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑣

Using 12mm bars:

2(𝜋 × 122 )
Asv = = 226mm
4

226 × 0.87 × 410

Sv = 100(2,05 +0.4 −0.192) = 35.70mm

𝑠𝑣𝐴 226
Sv min = 0.0012𝑏 = 0.0012 ×100 = 188mm

Provide T12mm @ 175mm centers as links throughout

4.4.4 Pier Column

4539.21kN

Table7 7500mm

BS5400: Part

4:1990
4539.21kN
Height of the pier = 7.5m

Pier size = 1.0m diameter

Loading:

Load from cross beam = 4539.21kN

𝜋 × 1.02
Self weight of the pier = ( × 7.5 × 1.4 × 24)
4

53
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

= 197.92kN

Total load on the column pier = 4737.13kN

Effective height of the pier = 0.7 × 7.5 = 5.25m = 5250mm

𝑙 5250
= 1000 = 5.25 < 15
ℎ

Therefore, the column is short.

𝑁 2344.87 ×106
= = 0.158
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏ℎ 30 ×(1000)2

𝑁 2344.87 ×106
= = 0.078
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏ℎ2 30 ×(1000)3

100𝐴𝑠𝑐
= 0.75
𝑏ℎ

0.75 ×10002
Asc = 100

= 7500mm2

Provide 20T25mm bars (As prov = 9820mm2)

Links:

Provide T12mm bars @ 200mm centers as the links

4.5 Foundation

Total load from one pier = 4737.13kN

Load from the two piers = 2 × 4737.13kN

= 9474.26kN

The soil bearing pressure = 400kN/m2

At required base area for the foundation

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 9474.26 ×1.1

= 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 17.97m2
100 × 1.45

54
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Provide a base 9.0m × 3.0m (A prov = 27m2)

Taking the foundation thickness = 1200mm

Foundation cover = 50mm

Bar diameter = 20mm

Links = 20mm

∅
Effective depth, d = h – cover - 2 – link

20
= 1200 – 50 - – 20 = 1120mm
2

4737.13kN 4737.13kN

1.85m 5.30m 1.85m

3.0m

9.0m

At ultimate limit state

1.1 ×9474.26
Earth pressure = = 385.99kkN/m2
9.0 ×3.0

Net upward pressure = earth pressure – self weight of the

footings

= 385.99 – (1.4 × 24 × 1.2) = 345.67kN/m2

55
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.5.1 Check for Shear Stress

𝑁
Shear stress, v = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝑁
v = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑑 < 0.8 √𝑓𝑐𝑢

4737.13 ×103
v = (𝜋 ×1200)×1120 = 1.12N/mm

0.8√30 = 4.38N/mm2

1.12N/mm2 < 4.38N/mm2

Since Vc ˃ V. therefore, the footing thickness is adequate

to resist the punching shear.

4.5.2 Bending moment, Deflection and Shear forces

R1 R2

1.85m 5.30m 1.85m

345.67 * 3 = 1037.01kN/m

1037.01 ×9
R1 = R2 = = 4666.55kN
2

Shear forces:

VAB = VDC = 103701 × 1.85

= 1918.47kN

VBC = VCB = 4666.55 – 1918.47

= 2748.08Kn

56
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

1037.01kN/m

-2053.66kNm 1774.54kNm

1774.54kNm

2748.08kN
1918.87kN
m

1918.47kN
2748.08kN
Bending Moments:

For the overhanging moments,

𝑤𝑙 2 1037.01 ×1.852
M= = = 1774.54kNm
2 2

Moment at mid-span:

The maximum bending moment in the footing section

occur at the mid-span (centre of the footings).

Therefore, x = 4.5m

57
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

1037.01 ×4.52
Mx = - 4737.13 (4.5 – 1.85)
2

= 10499.73 – 12553.39

= - 2053.66kNm

4.5.3 Bending Reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement:

1.85 −0.52
At the column face, M = 1037.01( )
2

M = 829.61kNm
M= 829.61kNm
𝑀 829.61 ×106
K=𝑓 2 = 30 ×1000 ×11202
𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑

= 0.0220 K = 0.0220

0.0220
la = 0.5 + √0.25 – ( )
0.9

= 0.97 ˃ 0.95 Therefore, la = 0.95

la = 0.95
Z = lad = 0.95 × 1120

= 1064mm
Z = 1064mm
𝑀 829.61 ×106
As = 0.87𝑓 = 0.87 ×410 ×1064
𝑦𝑍

= 2185.89mm2 As=2185.89mm2

Mid-span reinforcement:

M = 2053.66kN

2053.66 ×106 K = 0.0653

K = 30 ×1000 ×10242 = 0.0653

0.0653
la = 0.5 + √0.25 – ( )
0.9 la = 0.94

58
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

la = 0.94

Z = 0.94 ×1024 = 962.56mm

2053.66 × 106 As=5981.33mm2

As = 0.87 ×410 ×962.56 = 5981.33mm2

Transverse Reinforcement:

1.52
M = 345.67 × = 388.88kNm
2

388.88 × 106
K = 30 ×1000 ×10242 = 0.0123

0.0123 As=1120.70mm2
la = 0.5 + √0.25 – ( )
0.7

= 0.98 ˃ 0.95 Therefore, la = 0.95

Z = 0.95 × 1024 = 972.8mm

388.88 × 106
As = 0.87 ×410 ×972.8 = 1120.70mm2

4.5.4 Final Check on Shear

V = 2748.08 – 1037.01 (1.120 + 0.5)

= 2748.08 – 1680.05

= 1068.03kN
𝑉
Shear force, V = 𝑏𝑑

1068.03 × 103
= 3000 ×1120

= 0.32N/mm2

0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 4.38N/mm2

0.32N/mm2 < 4.38N/mm2 Therefore, Shear Okay.

59
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.6 Approach Slab

The approach slab is a simply supported slab with two

way span, according to BS 5400 specification.

8000mm

5000mm

The slab thickness h = 300mm

Effective depth d = h – cover – Ø/2

= 300 – 40 – 20/2

= 250mm

4.6.1 Slab Loadings

Self weight of the slab = 0.3 × 24 × 5 = 36kN/m

Surface asphalt = 0.05 × 5 ×23.35 = 5.84kN/m

Total dead load = 41.84kN/m

Imposed load on the approach slab :

BS. 5400 specify 20.0kN/m per length, therefore the

imposed load per meter,

= 20.0 × 1.0 = 20.0kN/m

At ultimate limit state, the ultimate load,

60
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

= 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

N = 1.4( 41.89) + 1.6(20.0)

= 90.58kNm N= 90.58kNm

𝑙𝑦 8000
= 5000 = 1.6
𝑙𝑥

Table 3.13 BS.

Moment coefficients :
8110: part 1:
αsx = 0.108
1997
αsy = 0.042

4.6.2 Bending Reinforcement

Mx=244.56kNm
Mx = αsxN lx2 = 0.108 × 90.58 × 52 = 244.56kNm

244.56 × 106
k = 30 × 1000 × 2502 = 0.130

0.130
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − = 0.82 La = 0.82
0.9

z = lad = 0.82 × 250 = 205mm Z= 205mm

244.56 × 106
As = 0.87 × 410 ×205 = 3344.48mm2
T25mm@125mm
Provide T25mm @ 125mm c/c Top and Bottom

(As provided = 3930mm2/m)

My= 95.11kNm
My = αsy N lx2 = 0.042 × 90.58 × 52 = 95.11kNm

95.11 × 106
k = 30 × 1000 × 2502 = 0.0507

0.0507
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − = 0.94 la = 0.94
0.9

z = lad = 0.94 × 250 = 235mm

61
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

95.11 × 106
As = 0.87 × 410 ×205 = 1134.63 mm2
T20mm@200mm
Provide T20mm @ 200mm c/c Top and Bottom

(As provided = 1570mm2/m)

4.6.3 Check for Shear

Maximum shear force occurs at mid span. i.e at x= 2.5m

V = 90.58 ×2.5 = 226.45kN

𝑉 226.45 × 103
Shear stress v = 𝑏𝑑 = = 0.91N/mm2
1000 ×250

0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 4.38N/mm2

100𝐴𝑠 100 ×3930

= = 1.572
𝑏𝑑 1000 ×250
Table 8 BS5400
vc = 0.773N/mm2
Part 4: 1990

Table 9 BS5400
Depth factor, ξs for d = 250mm = 0.81
Part 4: 1990
ξsVc = 1.2 × 0.773 = 0.928N/mm2

0.928N/mm2 < 4.38N/mm2, shear stress for concrete

grade 30. Therefore the section provided is adequate.

4.6.4 Check for Deflection

𝑀 90.58 × 106
= 1000 × 2502 = 1.45N/mm2
𝑏𝑑2

2 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞 1
fs = 3 fy 𝐴𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 𝛽

2 1134.63
fs = 3 × 410 × = 197.55N/mm2
1570

62
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

477−197.55
M.F = 0.55 + 120(0.9+1.45) = 1.54

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
= 1.54 × 20 = 30.8
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 5000

= = 20
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 250

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

˃ , therefore the deflection is
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

okay.

4.7 Parapet Wall

Maximum moment of 25.0kNm as recommended by

BE5

Taking : b = 1000mm

h = 200mm

and using 16mm bars.

d = 200 – 40 – 8 = 152mm

25.0 × 106
k = 30 × 1000 × 1522 = 0.0361

0.0361
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − = 0.96 > 0.95 la = 0.95
0.9

z = lad = 0.95 × 152 = 144.4mm

25.0 × 106
As = 0.87 × 410 ×144.4 = 485mm2

Provide T12mm @ 200mm c/c

T12mm@200mm

63
 (As provided = 566mm2/m)

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Distribution Reinforcement :

0.13𝑏ℎ
As = 100

0.13 ×1000 ×200

= = 260mm2
100

Provide T12mm @ 300mm c/c

T12mm@300mm
(As provided = 377mm2/m)

4.8 Abutment

Suitable founding strata at 9.0m below the proposed road

level.

Angle of shearing resistance Ø = 300

64
 Safe bearing capacity of the soil = 400kN/m2

Density γ = 19kN/m3

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.8.1 Loadings

Load from the deck

Critical Under the beam Total reaction on

reaction each abutment
Normal Ultimate Normal Ultimate
reaction reaction reaction reaction
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Concretedeck 129 234 968 1755

Surfacing 30 60 225 450

HA 72 177 540 1328

UDL+KEL

45 units HB 450 500 1940 2770

BS 5400 part 2:
Table 4.8.1
Figure 7&8
Nominal loading on 1m length of abutment :

65
BS 5400 part 2: (968+225)
Deck dead load = = 108.45kn/m
11

Table 10&11 540

HA live load on deck = = 49.09kN/m
11

1940
HA live load on deck = = 176.36kN/m
11

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Minimum shade air temperature = -190C

Maximum shade air temperature = 370C

For group 4 type of construction:

Minimum effective bridge temperature = -110C

Maximum effective bridge temperature = 360C

Temperature range = 11+36 =470C

Range of movement at free end of the 15m span deck

= 47×12×10-6×15×103 = 8.46mm

The ultimate thermal movement in the deck will be

±[(1.3/2)𝛾f3 𝛾ff]

= ±[ 8.46 × 1.1 × 1.3/2] = ±6.05mm

66
 4.8.2 Bearing (elastomeric)

Maximum ultimate reaction = 23+60+500 = 794kN

Using Ekspan’s elastomeric pad bearing EKR35

Maximum load = 1053kN

Shear deflection = 13.3mm

Shear stiffness = 12.14kN/m

Bearing thickness = 19mm

The maximum shade air temperature = 160C

Expansion in the deck

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

(37−16)
= 6.05× (37+19) = 4.5mm
2

Contraction in the deck

(16+19)
= 6.05× (37+19) = 7.6mm
2

Therefore maximum shade air temperature is assumed to

be 180C

Horizontal load at bearing for 7.6mm contraction

BS 5400. Part 2: = 12.14×7.6 = 92.26kN

92.26
Clause 6.10 The nominal horizontal load = 1.1⁄1.3 = 64.52kN

64.52kN at each bearing. The total horizontal load on each

abutment

67
 = 11×64.52 = 709.72kN

= 64.62kN/m

BS 5400 part 2: Traction and Bearing load

Clause 6.11. Nominal load for HA = 8kN/m × 15m ×250kN =370kN

Nominal load for HB = 25% of 45units ×10kN×4axles

= 450kN

Since HB ˃ HA (i.e 450 > 370) bearing is critical

450
Braking load on 1m width of abutment = = 40.90kN/m
11

Skidding load

Nominal load = 300kN

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

300kN < 450kN, hence braking load is critical in th

longitudinal direction.

4.8.3 Backfill and Surcharge load

Backfill:

Earth pressure = kaγh

1−sin ∅
Ka = 1+sin ∅

Ø = 350

1−sin 35
Ka = 1+sin 35 = 0.27

Density of the material = 19kN/m3

68
 Active pressure at depth h = 0.27×19 = 5.13 kN/m2

5.13ℎ2
Hence Fb = = 2.57h2kN/m
2

h=8.8m

Fb = 2.57×8.82 = 199.02kNm

Surcharge:
BS 5400 part 2:
HA loading surcharge = 10kN/m2
Clause 5.8.2
HB loading surcharge = 20kN/m2

Assumed compaction plant surcharge = 12kN/m2

Total surcharge load w= 42kN/m2

Fs = kawh = 0.27×12×8.8 = 28.51kN/m

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

69
 4.8.4 Check for stability of the abutment

Density of concrete = 24kN/m3

Weight of wall stem = 1.0×6.5×24 = 156kN/m

Weight of base = 6.4×1.0×24 = 153.6kN/m

Weight of backfill = 4.3×6.5×19 = 531kN/m

Weight of surcharge = 4.3×12 = 51.6kN/m

Backfill force Fb = 0.27×19×8.82/2 = 199kN/m

Surcharge force Fs = 0.27×12×8.8 = 28.5kN/m

Restoring effects: Table 4.8.4.1

Weight Lever Arm Moment about A

Stem 156 1.6 249.6

Base 153.6 3.2 491.52

Backfill 531 4.25 2256.75

Surcharge 51.6 4.25 219.3

𝜀 892.2 3217.17

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

70
 Overturning effects:

F Lever Arm Moment about A

Backfill 199 2.5 497.5

Surcharge 28.5 3.75 106.86

𝜀 227.5 604.36

Table 4.8.4.2
3217.17
Factor of safety against overturning = = 5.32 > 2
604.36

Therefore design ok

Sliding effects:

Active force = Fb + Fs = 227.5kN/m

Frictional force on underside of base resisting movement

= wtan ∅ = 906 × tan 30 = 523kN/m

523
Factor of safety against sliding = 227.5 = 2.29 > 2.0 ∴ 𝑜𝑘

4.8.5 Bearing Pressure

The bearing pressure at toe and heel of base slab

=(P/A) ± (Pe/Z)

P = 906kN/m, A= 6.4m2/6, Z= 6.42/6 = 6.827m3/m

BS 5400 part 2:
Net moment = 3217.17 – 604.36 = 2612.81kN/m
Clause 5.8.1.2:
Eccentricity (e) = 3.2-(2612.81/906) = 0.316
BS 5400 part 4:
Pressure under base = (906/6.4)±[(906×0.316)/6.827]
Clause 4.2.2
Pressure under toe = 142+15 = 157kN/m2
&4.2.3

REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

71
 <400kN/m2 ∴ ok

Pressure under heel = 142-15 = 127kN/m2

4.8.6 Abutment wall

Ke = 1-sin ∅ = 1- sin 35 = 0.426

γfl for horizontal load due to surcharge and backfill.

Serviceability = 1.0 & Ultimate = 1.5

γf3 = 1.0 (serviceability)

= 1.1 (ultimate)

Fb on the wall = 0.426 ×19×7.52/2 = 227.64kN/m

Fs on the wall = 0.426 ×12×7.5 = 38.34kN/m

At the base of the wall: serviceability moment

(227.64×7.5) (38.34×7.5)
= + = 712.86kNm
3 3
La= 0.95
Design moment at ultimate limit state

= 1.1×1.5×712.86 = 1176.24kN/m

Shear force = 1.1×1.5×(227.64+38.34) = 438.87kN/m

Y25 @125mm
Ultimate axial load in the wall from deck reactions

= 1755+450+2770 = 4975kN

0.1fcu Ac = 0.1×40×103×11×1.0 = 44000kN > 4975

∴ the wall is design as a slab.

Bending reinforcement
𝑀
k=𝑓 2
𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑

72
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

d = 1000 – 50 – 20 = 930mm Y16 @ 125 c/c

1176.24 ×106
k = 40×1000×9303 = 0.034

0.034
la = 0.5+ √0.25 − = 0.96 > 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95×930 = 883.5mm

𝑀 1176.24×106
As = 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑍 = 0.87×410×883.5 = 3732.38mm2

Provide Y25mm @ 125mm c/c

(As provided = 3930mm2)

Check :

As min = 0.13%bh
0.13×1000×1000
= = 1300mm2
100

Distribution reinforcement:

Provide Y16mm@ 125mm c/c (As provided = 1610mm2)

Check for shear:

𝑉 438.87×103
v = 𝑏𝑑 = = 0.47N/mm2
1000×930

v = 𝜉 svc

𝜉 s = (500/d)1/4 = (500/930) ¼ = 0.84

Vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bd)1/3(fcu)1/3

= 0.216×0.75×3.42 = 0.55N/mm2

v = 0.86 × 0.55 = 0.47N/mm2

vc = v shear ok

73
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.8.7 Base Design

γfl =1.0 and γf3 = 1.0

At ultimate limit state:

Density of concrete = 24kN/m3

Weight of wall stem = 1.0×7.5×24 = 207kN/m

Weight of base = 6.4×1.0×24×1.15 = 176.64kN/m

Weight of backfill = 4.3×7.5×19×1.2 = 735.30kN/m

Weight of surcharge = 4.3×12×1.2 = 62kN/m

Backfill force Fb = 0.426×19×(8.82×1.5)/2 = 470.10kN/m

Surcharge force Fs = 0.426×12×8.8×1.5 = 67.48kN/m

Restoring effects:

Weight Lever Arm Moment about A

Stem 207 1.6 331.2

Base 176.64 3.2 565.25

Backfill 735.30 4.25 3125.02

Surcharge 62 4.25 263.5

𝜀 1180.94 4284.97

Table 4.8.7.1

74
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Overturning effects:

F Lever Arm Moment about A

Backfill 470.1 2.5 1175.25

Surcharge 67.48 3.75 253.05

𝜀 537.58 1428.30

Table 4.8.7.2

The bearing pressure at toe and heel of base slab

=(P/A) ± (Pe/Z)

P = 1070kN/m, A= 6.4m2/6, Z= 6.42/6 = 6.827m3/m

Net moment = 4284.97 – 1428.30 = 2856.67kN/m

Eccentricity (e) = 3.2-(2856.67/1070) = 0.53m

Pressure under base = (1070/6.4)±[(1070×0.53)/6.827]

Pressure under toe = 167+93 = 260kN/m2

Pressure under heel = 167-93 = 74kN/m2

Pressure at front face of the wall = 74 +(260 – 74)×5.3/6.4

= 228kN/m2

Pressure at the rear face of the wall= 74+(260-74)×4.3/6.4

= 199kN/m2

75
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

la = 0.95

Z = 887.3mm
γf3 = 1.1

ULS shear at a – a

= 1.1×[(260+228)×1.1/3] – (1.15×1.1×25) = 60kN/m

ULS shear at b – b

= 1.1×[(199 + 74) × 4.3/2] – (1.15 – 4.3×25) - 637 – 62

= 259kN/m

ULS moment at a – a

= 1.1×[(228×1.12/2) + (260 – 228) × 1.12/3] –

(1.15×25×1.0×1.12/2) = 148kNm

(tension in the bottom face)

ULS moment at b – b = -769kNm

(tension in the top face)

76
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Bending reinforcement
𝑀
k=𝑓 2
𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑

d = 1000 – 50 – 16 = 934mm

769 ×106
k = 40×1000×9342 = 0.022

0.022
la = 0.5+ √0.25 − = 0.97 > 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95×934 = 887.3mm

𝑀 769×106
As = 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑍 = 0.87×410×887.3 = 2429.70mm2

Provide Y20mm @ 125mm c/c

(As provided = 2510mm2)

Check for shear:

ULS shear on the toe

= 1.1×(620+599)×0.5×0.176 – 1.15×1.0×0.176×25

= 112kN

77
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

𝑉 112×103
v = 𝑏𝑑 = 1000×934 = 0.12N/mm2

vc = 0.53N/mm2 > 0.12N/mm2

therefore shear ok.

Shear on heel:

Length of heel = (6.5 – 1.1 – 1.0) = 4.4

ULS shear on heel = 559kN

𝑉 559×103
v = 𝑏𝑑 = 1000×934 = 0.60N/mm2

vc = 0.62

v = 𝜉 svc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53N/mm2

0.53N/mm2 = 0.605N/mm2

Provide Y16mm @150mm c/c shear reinforcement

4.8.8 Curtain wall

BS 5400 clause
HB braking load = 112.5kN/m per axle
6.10
Assume a 450 dispersal to the curtain wall.

The width of the abutment =11.0m

First axle load on the back of abutment = 112.5/3

= 37.5kN/m

Second axle load = 112.5/6.3 = 17.86kN/m

Third and fourth axle load on the back of abutment

= (2 × 112.5)/2 = 20.45kN/m

78
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Maximum load on back of abutment

= 37.5 + 17.86 + 20.45 = 75.81kN/m

Bending and shear at base of 2m high curtain wall

Horizontal load due to HB surcharge = 0.426 × 20 × 2

= 17.04kN/m

Horizontal load due to backfill = 0.426 × 19 × 22/2

= 16.19kN/m

ULS moment

= 1.1×[(1.1×75.81×3.0) + (1.5×17.04) + (1.5×16.19)

= 330.03kNm/m

ULS shear

= 1.1×[(1.1×75.81) + (1.5×17.04) + (1.5×16.19)

= 146.56kN/m

Bending reinforcement
𝑀
k=𝑓 2
𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑

d = 400 – 40 – 20 = 340mm

330.03 ×106
k = 40×1000×3402 = 0.095

0.095
la = 0.5+ √0.25 − = 0.88
0.9

Z = lad = 0.88×340 = 299.2mm

𝑀 330.03×106
As = 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑍 = 0.87×410×299.2 = 3092.35mm

79
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Provide Y20mm @ 125mm c/c

(As provided = 2510mm2)

Check for shear:

𝑉 146.56×103
v = 𝑏𝑑 = = 0.43N/mm2
1000×340

vc = 0.93N/mm2 > 0.43N/mm2

∴ shear is ok

4.8.9 Analysis And Design Of Wingwall

1−sin θ
K a = 1+sin θ

1 − sin 30
∴ Ka = = 0.333
1 + sin 30

q1 = 5KN/m

H1 = 7.85m ,

H2 = 5.15m

80
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Horizontal force due to earthfill on the wall

shape Horizontal force (P) Lever arm Moment about

(KN) (m) the base
(KNm)
H1 (qK a ) = 8.8(5 × 0.33) H1
H2 + =
=14.52 2
(1) 110.35
8.8
3.2 + ( ) =
2
7.60
1 2 H1
H (γ K ) = H2+ =
(2) 2 1 dry a 3
1423.49
1 8.8
× 8.82 × 18 × 0.333 = 3.2 + ( ) =
2 3
232.09 6.13

H2 . K a (q1 + γdry H1 ) = H2 3.2

=
2 2
(3) 3.2 × 0.333(5 + 18 × 8.8) 278.59
= 1.60
= 174.12
1 2 H2 3.2
H γ K = =
(4) 2 2 sub a 3 3
1 = 1.07
× 3.22 × 11.19 × 0.333 20.17
2
= 18.91
1 2 H2 3.2
H γ K = =
(5) 2 2 water a 3 3
1 = 1.07
× 3.22 × 9.81 × 0.333 17.90
2
= 16.73

∑ P = 456.37 1850.50

81
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

The location of the resultant moment x,

∑𝑀 1850.50
𝑥= = = 4.05m
∑𝑃 456.37

Vertical loads due to weight of wall and earthfill:

part Area ( m2 ) Weight per metre width

(KN)
(1) 3.65 × 5.0 = 18.25 18.25 × 24 = 438.0

(2) 0.5 × .7 × 2.0 = 0.7 0.7 × 24 = 16.8

(3) 4.3 × 2.0 = 8.6 8.6 × 24 = 206.4

(4) 3.15 × 4.3 = 13.55 13.55 × 24 = 325.2

𝐆𝐊 = 𝟗𝟖𝟔. 𝟒𝟎

(6) 1 11.76 × 18 = 211.68

(1.0 + 8.8)1.2 = 11.76
2

(8) 3.65 × 4.5 = 16.43 16.43 × 11.19 = 183.85

𝐕𝐊 = 𝟑𝟗𝟓. 𝟓𝟑

4.8.9.1 Check For Sliding

µ(1.0Gk + 1.0Vk ) ≥ γf HK

where, µ = coefficient of friction between the base and the soil =

0.5

Vk = vertical loads due to earth fill.

γf = factor of safety, 1.6 for horizontal force and 1.0 for dead

load.

HK = Horizontal force on length of the wall.

82
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Frictional resisting force = µ(1.0Gk + 1.0Vk )

= 0.5[1.0(986.4) + 1.0(395.53)]

= 690.97KN

Sliding force = γf HK = 1.6(456.37)

= 730.192KN

The frictional force exceeds the sliding force i.e.

600.96KN > 337.995KN

Hence the section is adequate in resisting sliding force without the

need for heel beam.

4.8.9.2 Check For Overturning

Overturning moment, Mo = γf HK . 𝑥

= 1.6 × 456.37 × 2.71

= 915.97KNm

Restoring moment, Mr

Mr = (90x5.75) + (60x5.333) + 864(2.25) + 90(5.75) + 97.913(5.75)

= 3861.98 KNm

Restoring moment (3861.98KNm) > overturning moment

(915.97KNm).

∴ the wall is safe against overturning.

83
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

4.8.9.3 Bending Reinforcement

Horizontal force = γf HK = 1.6 × 456.37

= 730.19KN

Design moment= 730.19( 4.05 – 0.50)

= 2592.17 KNm

Design data:

fcu = 30N/mm2

fy = 410N/mm2

Cover = 40mm

Diameter of bars = 20mm

h = 700mm

b = 1000mm

20
∴ d = 700 − 40 − = 650mm
2

2592.17 × 106
k= = 0.204
30 × 1000 × 6502

0.204
la = 0.5 + √0.25 − = 0.93
0.9

z = 0.93 × 650 = 604.5mm

2592.17 × 106
AS = = 6010.82mm2
0.87 × 410 × 604.5

Provide T25mm bars@125mm 𝑐⁄𝑐 (ASprov = 7205mm2 /m)

84
REFERENCE CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Distribution reinforcement:

0.13 × 1000 × 700

AS = 0.13%bh = = 910mm2
100

Provide T16mm bars@200mm 𝑐⁄𝑐 (ASprov = 1010mm2 /m)

85
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

This project was with the objective of providing an alternate bridge design for the failing Ogun

bridge at KM 25, Oyo – Iseyin road. The design has been done in strict adherence to the

provision of relevant codes of practice and with reference to previous works and great ideas of

prominent designer in the civil engineering field.

The option of composite section for the bridge was aim at achieving maximization of materials,

reduction in the dead weight of the bridge, economy and safety throughout the service life of the

bridge. To this end, the characteristics strength and loads used in the design take account of the

variation in the strengths and properties of material used and the magnitude of the loads to be

supported.

Evaluation of the construction methods and materials employed for each component of the

bridge indicates that economy is satisfied, adequate degree of safety and serviceability is

guaranteed throughout the life span of the bridge.

Conclusively, from the analysis done using relevant codes, it can thus be stated without doubt

that the structure is safe against any kind of failure and could be constructed in any place that has

the same properties as obtainable at the bridge site.

86
5.2 Recommendation

The following are recommended during and after the construction of the bridge since the

purpose of a structural design are to obtain a structural solution for safety, serviceability and

durability throughout the design life.

 Steel Reinforcement: Steel reinforcement should be new, clean and free of rust and not be

painted. It should not be bent or straightened in such a way that the material is injured.

 Formwork: Formwork must be able to maintain the concrete in its correct position during

placing, setting and hardening without loss of material.

 Concrete:

a. Composition: the concrete should be composed of Portland cement, fine and

coarse aggregate. The fine aggregate should be clean dried sand and the coarse

aggregate should be crushed stone (granite).

b. Mixing: the concrete should be mixed in a mechanical mixer of the batch type and

it should continue until there is thorough distribution of the material and the mass

is uniform.

c. Transportation: the concrete should be taken from the place of mixing to

deposition by any method that will prevent segregation or loss of the materials.

d. Curing: all the concrete should be protected from the harmful effect of the

environment.

 Steel beam: the steel beam should be hot rolled section with good strength and should be

handled with great care during the construction process.

 Shear connectors: the shear connector should be made of high yield steel and should be

welded to the column plate at the construction site.

87
Furthermore the design of bridges involves a lot of research and most times rigorous analysis; as

such it is recommended that:

 The use of some of the numerous and readily available bridge design software should be

encouraged.

 Students should be exposed to the rudiment of analysis and design of bridge in the early

stages of their studies.

 Adequate provision of materials and necessary motivations should be provided for the

student embarking on design project.

88
REFERENCES

B.S. 5400: Part 2 (1978), Specification for Loads, British Standard Publication London.

B.S. 5400: Part 4 (1978), Code Of Practice for the Design of Concrete Bridges, British Standard
Publication London.

B.S. 8110: Part 1 (1997), Code Of Practice for Design and Construction, British Standard
Publication London.

Brown, David J. (2005) Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature. Richmond Hill, Ont:
Firefly Books.

Buick Davison and Graham W. Owens (2003) Steel Designers’ manual, Sixth Edition, Blackwell
Publishing

David Childs, (2011) Bridge Abutment Design Example.

www.childs-ceng.demon.co.uk/tutorial/abutex.html
General Specifications(Roads And Bridges) Volume II Revised Edition (1997), Federal
Ministry of Works Nigeria.

Highway Manual Part 1, Design (1973), Federal Ministry of Works Nigeria.

Institution of Civil Engineers (2008) Manual of Bridge Engineering, Second Edition. In: Parke
G., Hewson N. (Ed).

Mosley B., Bungey J., Hulse R, (1990), Reinforced Concrete Design, Fourth Edition, Palmgrave
Publishers, London.

Oyenuga V. O. (2001), Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design. Asros Ltd Surulere Lagos.

Smith M. J. and Bell B. J. (1973), Theory Of Structures, (Low Price Edition), Macdonald And
Evans.

89