1.

Introduction

Def: - A bridge is a structure that crosses over a river, bay or other obstructions, permitting the smooth and
safe passage of vehicles, trains and pedestrians. An elevation view of a typical is shown below. A bridge
structure is divided into upper part (the super structure), which consists of the slab, the floor system, and the
main truss or girders, and a lower part (the substructure), which are columns, piers, towers, footings, piles
and abutments. The super structure provides horizontal spans, elevating above the ground surface.
They are not seen or understand in the same way by everyone.
For instance: A simple bridge over a small river will be viewed differently by different people because the
eyes each one sees it with are unique to that individual.
- Someone travelling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize a bridge is there
because the road way has posts and railing on either side.
- Others may remember a time before the bridge was built how far they had to travel to visit friends
and to get the children to school.
- Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighborhoods and a way to provide fire and police
protection and access to hospital.
- In business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and expanding commerce.
- An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future painting.
- A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection between God and human
beings.
- While a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will have a completely
different perspective.
Bridges affect people. People use them and engineers design them and later build and maintain them.
Bridges must be planned and engineered before they can be constructed.
Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in many areas:
structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying, runoff calculation and methods of
construction.
Mankind takes lessons from nature to construct bridges

• Tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the earliest example of a beam type bridge.
• Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest forebear of
arch bridges.
• Creeper hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other was the
forerunners of suspension bridges.

Transportation System and Bridges

Transportation system which is implemented on land needs bridges.

Basically in Road Transportation System Bridge is mandatory for two reasons.
1. To pass obstacles
2. To facilitate the transportation system. This is to say in larges cities there is traffic jam when two or
more roads meet at a point. For such cases bridges, called interchanges are provided. E.g. Gotera
interchange, Addis Ababa
A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength of the bridge is
unable to carry heavy trucks, loads limits will be posted and heavy trucks will be rerouted.
Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison to the road.
If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function.
Therefore, bridge designer has control over the

1
 • capacity,
• cost and
• Safety.

Bridge Terminologies

Approach: - It is a part of a bridge length wise to the communication route at the ends of the bridge. It can
be either a part of the bridge or a separated small bridge.
Wing Wall: - is a wall constructed at both sides subjected side ways to lateral earth pressures.

Piers: - are structural elements, which sustain superstructure dead and live loads, carry their own weight and
transmit all loads to the foundation soil. They are constructed of masonry or reinforced concrete.

Abutments: - are particular types of walls (retaining walls) that support the end of a bridge super structure.
They resist loads from the bridge superstructure & earth pressure.

Bearings: - Support the superstructure (girders, slabs, ---) and transmit the loads to the substructure
(abutments and piers). They connect the upper and lower structures and are designed to resist these reaction
forces.

Culvert – A structure with a maximum of 6.0-m total clear opening. A structure with a clear span opening
above that is a bridge.

Deck:- Flooring that supports vehicular traffic.

Span Length: - is the distance between the center of bearings.

Total width of a bridge: - is defined as the distance between the inside of the ower railings including
walkways.

Substructure – The part of a structure that is below the bearings of simple and continuous spans, skewbacks
of arches and top of footings of rigid frames, together with the back walls, wing walls and wing
protection railings.
Superstructure – Structural parts of the bridge that provide the horizontal span.

Tandem – Two closely spaced axles, usually connected to an under-carriage, which aids in distributing the
load equally.
Wheel – Single or dual tire at one end of an axle.

Waterway afflux: - the vertical increase of water due to vertical supports.

Freeboard: - The vertical distance between the crown and the level of the bottom of the girder.

2
 2. Bridge Investigation

2.1 Introduction

Aim of investigation is to select a suitable site from possible alternatives at which a bridge can be built
satisfying economy, safety, traffic demand, stream demand and aesthetics
Identification of bridge site location and making decisions on the type, size and capacity of the bridge are the
first stages in design.
To arrive on the decisions field surveys and information concerning:
• The proposed road alignments
• The local terrain and site condition
• The required design life of the bridge
• Traffic volume
• Resources available
Location of the bridge in relation to the alignment of the approaches may be determined:
• Total span < 6o m Alignment of approach governs
• Span between 60 and 300m Both alignment and good bridge site governs
• Total span > 300m Good bridge site governs
Local terrain and site conditions dictate height, length of spans, number of spans, location of piers and design
of substructures.
The traffic volume study will determine the bridge width and number of lanes.

2.2 Bridge Site Selection

2.2.1 Preliminary Survey

The objective of the preliminary survey is to study more than on alternative bridge sites. Usually the road
plans are not prepared contours at this early stage, which makes it necessary to use the topographic maps
available in the country. Possible bridge sites are first located on topographic maps. The Ethiopian Mapping
Authority has prepared maps to scale 1:250,000 for the whole country. This is especially suited for the
planning stage to calculate catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries and
other uses. After locating the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are visited to collect certain
preliminary data required for thorough examination of alternative bridge sites from which the final site shall
be selected.

2.2.2 Selection of Bridge Site

In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.

• The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream side of the crossing.
This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and the obstructions caused by piers, etc
have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
• The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will result in excessive
scour which endanger the foundation.

3
 • A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle above 20° should
be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
• The channel in the reach should be well defined.
• The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
• The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In this case the river flow
will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause erosion.
• The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined as the location where
the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves as a fulcrum about which river
channel swing laterally ( both upstream and down stream)
• The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding piers and
abutments.
• The site should allow for constructing approach road.

For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two types of rivers
namely alluvial and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood plains on either
side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread across the flood plain. They
are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the banks and transporting sediments.
Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and deeper than alluvial rivers.
Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the channel flow
with in tile bridge waterway opening.

2.3 Data Collection

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field information on the
catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water levels, navigational (like Baro River) and
other clearance requirements.
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most complete
survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal inspection by someone
experienced in bridge design.

Hydrology
Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features that can affect the
magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These are:
Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records, high water marks and
size and performance of existing structures in the vicinity.

High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they can be identified
from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or similar matted down,
mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high water indicators.

The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed for any
predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be found from
office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and configuration of the
watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains,
and the general geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.

4
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values, and runoff
coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different methods .
Like: Reve’s formula, Rational formula, Area-Velocity formula

Soil Investigation
Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in cooperation with
the soil investigators.
Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation material and
foundation level of the abutments and piers for design of the foundation.
This information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical surveying.

Samples of at least 2Kg each should be collected marking station number and river name where the crossing
site is fixed.

Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water shores,
existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough dimensions with approximate
measurements

As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well as along the
contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed and banks should also be
photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up
photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.

2.4 Design Consideration

Economical Span

Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there are conditions where
lengthen spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.
For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure cost equals to substructure
cost.

Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river has a wide flood plain,
the economical solution may be using short span bridge with proper scour and erosion protection for the
embankment, abutments and piers.

Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway and navigational
clearance.

5
The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during
maximum flood.

Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the floating debris
carried on it.
The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The minimum free board above the design
water level is given in table below unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made.

Table: Free Board

Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board (m)

0 to 3.0 0.3
3.0 to 30.0 0.6
30.0 to 300 0.9
> 300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is restricted by short
span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large floating items or in case of navigational
requirements.

Grade Requirements
Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of heaviest vehicle to climb,
vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may increase the span beyond the hydraulic
requirement.

3. Types of Bridges and their Selection

3.1 Types of Bridges

Bridges can be classified in different ways

(a) Traffic type/functionality - Skewed bridge

- Road bridge - Curved bridge
- Railway bridge
- Pedestrian bridge (d) Vertical Arrangement
- Aqueduct - Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal
- Viaduct - Inclined
- Equipment bridge

(b) Life Span

- Temporary bridges • Span
- Permanent bridges - L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
- Semi-permanent bridges - 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
- 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
(c) Horizontal Arrangement - 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
- Straight/Normal bridge - L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)

6
 - Slab Bridges
• Construction Materials - Girder (Deck girder Bridges)
- Timber Bridges - Box Girder
- Masonry Bridges - Portal Frame Bridges
- Reinforced Concrete Bridges - Arch Bridges
- Prestressed Concrete Bridges - Truss Bridges
- Steel Bridges - Plate Girder Bridges
- - Cable Stayed Bridges
• Span Arrangement - Suspension Bridges
- Simply Supported - Box Cell/ Box culvert
- Continuous • Movements
- Cantilever - Movable Bridges
- Fixed Bridges
• Structural Forms

Classification by Structural Form

Forms an engineering perspective, bridges are classified by their structural form. Only certain types of
structural forms are suitable and economically viable alternatives for certain span ranges. Structural form
refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge by which it transfers gravity and lateral loads from the
deck to the foundation. In different types of bridge loads follow different path as they are applied on the deck
and finally to the bearing foundation soil below.

1) Slab Bridge

The simplest type of bridge to construct and design and is perhaps the most common bridge. It requires less
labor and form work and economical for length up to 12m. Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth
over the whole bridge and the required depth is usually 5.5 – 6% of the span length. Slab bridges carry loads
primarily in shear and flexural bending.

2) Girder Bridges

Girder bridges are structurally simple and common. They consist of a floor slab, girders and the bearings,
which support and transmit gravity loads to the substructure. Girders resist bending moments and shear
forces are used for spans 12m to 90m. Girders are classified into T-Girder (cast-insitu), concrete Box-Girder
(RC or Prestressed), and steel plate Girder.

T – Girder It is usually used for a single span bridge spanning between 12-20m. The design depth of a
normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length depending on the number of beams.

Steel girder bridges are most favorable over deep or muddy waters since scaffolding from the ground is not
necessary. The scaffolding is braced from the bottom flanges of the steel beams. Cost competitiveness versus
a concrete bridge depends almost solely on the steel price compared to the concrete price, but also on the
availability of competent welders, sizes of workshops and similar.

7
Box Girder Are used for span length of between 30-90m, especially if a slender structure is desired or for
curved bridges with small horizontal curves where a great resistance to torsion is required with no loss of
strength is bending and shear.

3) Truss Bridges

In truss bridges, the floor slab, which carries the live load, is supported by the floor system of stringers and
cross beams. The load is transmitted to the main trusses at nodal connections, are on each side of the bridge,
through the floor system and finally to the bearings. Lateral braces, which also are truss frame, are attached
to the upper and lower chords to resist horizontal forces such as wind and earthquake loads as well as
torsional moments. The portal frame at the entrance provides transition of horizontal forces from the upper
chords to the substructure.

Truss bridges can take the form of a deck bridge as well as a through bridge. in this case, the concrete slab is
mounted on the upper chords and the sway bracing is placed between the vertical members of the two main
trusses to provide lateral stability.
A truss composed of upper and lower chords, joined by diagonal and vertical members. Trusses are an
assembly of bars, net plates and this are comparatively easier to erect on site and are often the choice for long
bridges.

Types of Truss Bridges

Warren Trusses
Warren trusses are simple in form and devoid of any vertical members. They are the most common and is a
frame composed of isosceles triangles, where the members are either in compression or tension.

Pratt Truss
In this type of truss the members are vertical and diagonal where the diagonals are inclined toward the center
and resist only tension. It is suitable for steel bridges since it is tension that is most effectively resisted but
the vertical members are in compression.

Howe Truss
It is similar to Pratt truss except that the diagonals are inclined toward the ends, leading to axial compression
forces and the vertical members resist tension.

Parker Truss
With longer span, the required magnitude of the couple is increased. This couple is economically achieved
by spacing the chords farther apart at the points of the largest bending moments, such as a parker truss. When
simple supported parker truss has its maximum depth at the center, the point of maximum bending moment.

K – Truss
Very long spans dictate truss depths that are too great, and the slopes of their diagonals may become
unacceptable. For an economical design, the desirable slope of diagonals is between 450 and 600. A solution
to this problem is the K-truss which permits short panels with acceptable slopes of diagonals.

8
4) Frame Bridges

The members are rigidly connected in “rahmen” structures or rigid frames. Unlike the truss and the arch
bridge, all the members are subjected to both axial force and bending moments. The members rigid frame
bridges are much larger than these in a typical building. The supports of frame bridges are either hinged or
fixed, making it an externally indeterminate structure and it is therefore not suitable when the foundation is
likely to sink. The reactions at the supports are horizontal and vertical forces at hinges, with the addition of a
bending moment at a fixed base.
The most economical span/opening for a single span frame bridge is 6 − 20 m provided that the height of the
walls are more than ¼ of the span length and that the soil is sufficiently stable, otherwise a slab or a girder
bridge is preferred.

The span length of a multiple span frame bridge, such as a double or triple box culvert, should not exceed 8
− 10 m for each span due to the required footing thickness and because larger structures are sensitive to
movements from earthquakes. Multiple open span frame bridges (without bottom slabs) should be avoided
because they are usually more expensive than continuous slabs or girders, unless the latter employs a very
expensive type of bearings.

There are different types of frame bridges such as portal frame, ∏-Rahmen, V-Leg Rahmen, Vierendeel
frame.

5) Arch Bridges

An arch acts like a circular beam restrained not only vertically but also horizontally at both ends, and thus
results, in vertical and horizontal reactions at the supports. The horizontal reaction causes axial compression
in addition to bending moments in the arch rib. The bending moments caused by the horizontal forces
balances those due to gravity loads in the super structure and they are economical in material compared with
an equivalent straight, simply supported girder or truss. Arch bridges may have high fabrication and erection
cost.

The most suitable site for arch bridges is a valley, with the arch foundations located on dry rock slopes. For
large spans the reactions are heavy producing large trust (horizontal component of reactions), necessitate
deep foundation. When the foundation material is not suitable, the thrust can be absorbed by tie rod
connecting the two ends of the arch.
Aesthetically, the arch can be the most successful of all bridge types and it appears as understandable and
expressive.

Types of Arch Bridges

An arch bridge includes the road deck and the supporting arch. Arch bridges are generally classified into the
deck, through-deck and semi-through-deck types. Since the deck is both types of bridges is sustained by
either vertical columns or hangers to the arch, structurally the same axial force action, either compression or
tension, is in effect in the members. The difference is that the vertical members of deck bridges take
compressive forces and the hangers of through-deck bridges take tension.

9
Two-hinge arch It is the basic structural type for an arch and has one degree of indeterminacy externally
because there are four end reactions.

Three – hinge arch If one hinge is added at the crown of the arch, the arch becomes a three-hinge arch
results in rendered determinate.

Fixed Arch If the two ends are clamped turning it into a fixed arch, it becomes indeterminate to the third
degree.

Tied Arch Tied arch is subtended by two hinges by a tie and simply supported and is externally determined
but internally has one degree of indeterminacy. The floor structures hang from the arch and are isolated from
the tie.

Trussed Arch Due to difficulty in structural analysis diagonal members are not used in arch bridges but in
trussed arch diagonal truss bars are used instead of vertical members. Diagonal web members increase the
stiffness of a bridge more so than vertical members.

6) Cable –stayed bridges

A cable stayed bridge hangs the girders form diagonal cables that are tensioned from the tower. The cables of
cable-stayed bridges are anchored in the girders. The girders are most often supported by movable or fixed
hinges. Due to the diagonally tensioned cables, axial forces and bending moments are imposed on the girder
and the tower. For long span bridges, stability under strong wind currents should be carefully considered in
the design.

The cable stayed bridge is usually analyzed using linear elastic frame analysis. The cable is modeled as a bar
element with hinged ends. Most of the load is transmitted to the substructure through the cables and the
tower. But some goes to the girder directly. The smaller the bending stiffness of the girder, the less the load
is taken by the girder. As the tower becomes higher, the tension force of the cable can be reduced. Since the
large force is the cable is concentrated on the girder and tower, stress concentration at these connections
should be carefully checked using finite element analysis.
In the preliminary design, the bridge is modeled as a plane frame. For the details, however, more precise
analyses such as three-dimensional stress analyses may be used.

It is recommended to be economical over the range 100-600m, but the maximum span used is 890m of the
Tatarn Bridge in Japan.

Types of Cable – stayed bridges

Cable-stayed bridges may be classified by the hanging formation of the cable and the shape of the tower.
Based on the hanging formation of the cable, they are radial, fan and harp type. Structurally, the radial cable
most effectively decreases the axial force in the tower and girders; however, difficulty in construction arises
due to the structural complexity at the top of the tower. The fan type is more common because the cable
connections at the tower are distributed. The harp type is aesthetically the most pleasing.
As the span length becomes large, columns such as the A, the H or Y shapes are selected to develop
significant torsional resistance.

Tension in Cable
One of the important aspects in the design of a cable-stayed bridge is the determination of the tension force
in the cable, which is directly related to the forces in the tower and the girder. Control on the tension force in
the cable is critical. The pretension of the cables must be known because it changes the stress in the girder
10
and the tower. If the vertical component of the tension is selected to be equal to the reaction of the
continuous girder (supported at the junction of the cable and girder), the bending moment in the girder can be
reduced to match that of the continuous girder.

The following three general principles are to be considered in determining cable tension:
1. Avoid having any bending moments (generated by dead loads) in the tower. This is accomplished
by balancing the horizontal components of the cable tension in the left and right ends of the
tower.
2. Keep the bending moments in the girder small. It depends on the location and the distance
between joints in the cable small distance (multi-cable) will result in small bending moments on
the girders.
3. Close the girder by connecting the center block lastly without using any compelling forces. The
cable tension is selected such that zero sectional force exists at the center of the girder.

7) Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridges use two main cables suspended between two towers and anchored to blocks at the ends.
Stiffening girders are either truss or box type and hung from the main cables using hangers. The suspension
bridge is most suitable for long spans. The longest is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge.

The load on the girder is transmitted to the towers through the hangers and the main cables, and then to the
arch or blocks. It can be seen that anchor blocks are essential to take the horizontal reaction force from the
cables. The gravity of the anchor blocks resists the upward component of the cable tension force and the
shear force between the anchor blocks and the foundation resists the horizontal component. Unlike the cable-
stayed bridge, no axial force is induced in the girders of a suspension bridge.
The sag in the main cable affects the structural behavior of the suspension bridge: the smaller the sag, the
larger the stiffness of the bridge and thereby large horizontal forces are applied to anchor blocks. In general
the ratio of the sag to the main span is selected to the about 1:10. It is economical over the span of 600m.

Types of suspension bridges

Suspension bridges can be classified based on the support condition of their stiffing girders and the main
cable. These are three-span two-hinge, continuous girder; single span and self anchored suspension bridges.
The three span two-hinge types is the most commonly used for highway bridges. The continuous girder is
often adapted for railroad bridges to avoid “Knuckle points”, which affect the trains.

When the side span is short the single, span type is selected. The main cables of self-anchored bridges are
fixed to the girders instead of to the anchor blocks, making the construction of the anchor blocks
unnecessary.

Cable Design
For the cable, the high strength steel wire, i.e. usually 5mm in diameter with a strength of 1760 N/mm2 and
zinc-galvanized is used. There are several types of cables: stand rope, spiral rope, locked coil rope, and
parallel wine stand.

Stiffening Girder
Truss or box type girders are used to stiffen suspension bridges. The girder must be carefully designed to
have sufficient stiffness for wind stability. For very long spans trusses are most effective in improving the
stiffness and stability. The box girder is often adopted due to its case of fabrication.

11
Tower
The tower is designed to be subjected to large axial compression and bending moment. It is designed to have
smaller bending stiffness in the longitudinal direction since the horizontal forces coming form both sides of
the tower keep it balanced.

3.2 Selection of Bridge Type

In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there is more than one
bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following factors should be considered.

• Geometric Condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below the road way.
E.g. If the alignment is on a curve, box and slab type bridges are best options.

• Subsurface Conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine whether abutments and
piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and etc.
The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part of the subsurface investigation because this will
change details of the substructure.
E.g. an inclined leg rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation

• Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic.
E.g. If future widening or replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is best option.

• Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend to make that
aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires training and time.
- When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing appearance occurs
when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths that decrease going up the side of the
valley.
- Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be addressed.
- Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing the same music
with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again can be uncomfortable.
Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic parameter in bridge design.
• Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different bridge types, the
construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A general rule is that the bridge with
minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical.
By reducing the number of spans, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated.
Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost
of the bridge,
Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than steel structures.

• Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be built is often governed
by construction and erection considerations. In general, the larger the prefabricated or precast member, the
shorter the construction time. However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport
and lift into place.
The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence the choice of a particular
bridge type.

• Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the type of bridge.
12
 4. Bridge Loadings

4.1 Types of loads

The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges where
applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges.
• Permanent Loads
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

• Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure

4.2 Dead Loads (DC = Structural Component; DW = Wearing surface; EV = Vertical Earth fill)
Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached
thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used for dead
loads.

Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
13
 Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10

4.3 Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer
part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers.

a)Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue
limit state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.
Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is unlikely that all
adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple presence factors.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
“m”

When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined with one or more lanes of the vehicular
live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

b) Vehicular Live Loads

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist of a
combination of the:
• Design truck or design tandem, and
• Design lane load
• Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in
Figure below.

14
 Characteristics of the Design Truck
• Design Tandem: The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles
spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. See below.

110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m
Design Tandem Load
• Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in the
longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed
over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic load
allowance.

c) Dynamic Load Allowance (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic effects due to
moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:
1-Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface discontinuities,
such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
2-Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long undulations
in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to resonant excitation as a
result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. The frequency of vibration of
any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).

Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
• All Other Limit States 33%
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where:
DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

d) Centrifugat forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):

Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces shall be
applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
15
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the
factor C, taken as:

C = 4 v2
3 g*R
where: v = highway design speed (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)

e) Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):

From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration
(retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

b = v2
2ga
Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.
From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or
tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.
These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in
either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects.

f) Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the ground should be
considered.
g) Pedestrian Loads
A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.

4.4 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)

a)Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above the point of
consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2).
p = γ * g * z * 10-9
Where p = static pressure (Mpa)
γ = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
b) Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical components
of static pressures, acting on all components below design water level.

c) Stream Pressure:
i) Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure
and the projected surface exposed thereto.
p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2

Where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
16
 V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit states
and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state

Drag Coefficient
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8

ii) Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an angle, θ,
to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure below) shall be taken as:

PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2

Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table below.

Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Lateral Drag Coefficient
Angle, θ, between direction of flow and CL
longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
≥30o 1.0

The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the surface exposed
thereto.

4.5) Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)

 Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length
the wind load on structures shall be neglected.
In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:

2
VDZ 
PD = PB  
VB 

17
 Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table below:
VDZ = design velocity of wind at design elevation, Z (Km/hr)
VB= Base wind velocity (Km/hr)

Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

STRUCTURAL WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa
COMPONENT
Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord and 2.2 kN/m2 in
the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not less than 4.4 kN/m2 on beam or girder
components.

 Wind Pressure on Vehicles, (WL): When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be
applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an
interruptible, moving force of 1.46 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and shall be
transmitted to the structure

 Aeroelastic Instability: Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been shown to
be aeroelastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are under about 30.0.
Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures is a highly developed
technology, which shall be used to study the wind response characteristics of a structural model or to
verify the results of analysis. This is especially applicable to long spans.
4.6) Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)
Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the equivalent
weight of the superstructure. These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge when a sudden shaking of the
ground occurs. Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500 mm at each abutment.
For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:

Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges
Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

In which:
* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method
The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and importance of the bridge.
Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles and for
security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return period event.

18
However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design earthquake and be usable by
emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year
return period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.

4.7) Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge;
DD = Down drag)
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:

• Type and density of earth, • Location of groundwater table,

• Water content, • Earth-structure interaction,
• Soil creep characteristics, • Amount of surcharge, and
• Degree of compaction • Earthquake effects.

Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth pressure. Walls that can
move away from the soil mass should be designed for pressures between active and at-rest conditions,
depending on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Movement required to reach the minimum active
pressure or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall height and the soil type. Some typical
values of these mobilizing movements, relative to wall height, are given in Table below:
Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach Minimum Active or Maximum Passive
Earth Pressure Conditions

Values of ∆/H
Type of Backfill Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05

Where:
∆ = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by tilting or
lateral translation (mm)
H = height of wall (mm)

For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be taken into
consideration in estimating the design earth pressures.

Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of one-half the height
of the wall, taken as the difference in elevation between the point where finished grade intersects the back of
the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that shall be induced by compaction
shall be taken into account.

Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be eliminated through use
of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains,
gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide drainage.

19
Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special
consideration should be given to addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.

a)EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure

There are two earth pressure theories used. These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories.
Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC abutment since this theory holds better
for the actual situation.

Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be linearly proportional to the depth of earth and taken
as:

p = kh*γs*g*z *10-9

Where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, from table below for walls that do not deflect or
move,

Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko

OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40

Or ka, specified in Equations below, walls that deflect

ka = sin2 (θ + ϕ/)
Γ* sin2θ sin (θ - δ)
In which:
2

Γ = 1 + sin (ϕ/ + δ) sin (ϕ/ - β)

sin (θ - δ) sin (θ + β)

Where: δ = friction angle between fill and wall

β = angle of fill to the horizontal
θ = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical
ϕ/ = effective angle of internal friction (°)

20
 Notations

γs = density of soil (kg/m3)

z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

b) ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge

Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, ∆p (MPa), shall be added to the
basic earth pressure. This constant earth pressure shall be taken as:
∆p = ks qs

Where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge

qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge (MPa)

A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the surface of the backfill
within a distance equal to the wall height behind the back face of the wall.
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:

∆p = k*γs*g*heq *10-9

where: ∆p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)

γs = density of soil (kg /m3)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)

Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table below. Linear interpolation
shall be used for intermediate wall heights.

The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and the bottom of the
footing.

Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to Vehicular Loading
Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)
≤1500 1700

21
 3000 1200
6000 760
≥9000 610
N.B If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported by means other
than earth, an appropriate reduction in the surcharge loads shall be permitted.

c) Down Drag (DD):

When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In this case, the force should be considered.

4.8) Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
• Uniform temperature, (TU): Bridge materials expend and contract in response to rise and fall of
temperature. The difference between the lowest or the highest temperature and the base construction
temperature assumed in design shall be used to calculate thermal deformation effects.
• Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom surfaces of abridge
because the top surface is subjected to direct solar radiation.
• Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains between concretes of
different age and composition, and between concrete and steel or wood, shall be determined. The
designer may specify timing and sequence of construction in order to minimize stresses due to
differential shrinkage between components.
• Creep, (CR): In determining force effects and deformations due to creep, dependence on time and
changes in compressive stresses shall be taken into account.
• Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in continues structures. Force effects due to extreme
values of differential settlements among substructures and within individual substructure units shall be
considered.

4.9) Design Philosophy:

In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross section has to exceed the effects
come from the applied loads. That is
Resistance ≥Effect of Loads
When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the resistance capacity of the provided section
failure is the result. Such a condition is referred to as a Limit State.
A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge component ceases to full fill the function
for which it is designed.
Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design of bridges. In addition to this
function, appearance and economy must get due attention.
Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These factors are results of collective
experience and judgment of qualified group of engineers and officials.
In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision is used for bridge design. The resistance side of the
inequality of Equation above is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor, whose value is usually
less than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor, whose value is usually
greater than one.
The load effect at a particular limit state involves a combination of a different load types (Qi) that have
different degrees of predictability. Due to this reason the load effect side is written in a summation form. The
equation is
Φ ∗ Rn ≥ ∑ γi ∗ Qi
And this equation involves both load factors and resistance factor due to this the design method is called load
and resistance factor design method. In AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification the equation is given by

22
 η ∗ ∑ γi ∗ Qi ≤ Φ ∗ Rn
The additional parameter η is known as load modifier which is incorporated to consider ductility, redundancy
and operational importance of the bridge.
Under the umbrella of the LRFD the strength limit state, extreme event limit state, service limit state and
fatigue and fracture limit state exist.

Load Factors and Load Combinations:

The total factored force effect shall be taken as:

Q = Σηiγi Qi

Where:
ηi= load modifier
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
γi = load factors specified in Tables B and C below
Rn= is resistance

Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the applicable combinations of
factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states presented in Table A:

Table A Limit States

STRENGTH Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge
I without wind.

A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations,

specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage (SH),
used when calculating force effects other than displacements at the
strength limit state, represents an expected reduction of these force
effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the structure. The
calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified
II special design or permit vehicles, without wind.
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified
herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the
design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in its lane,
should be considered.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity
III exceeding 90 km/h.
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high
winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge.

23
STRENGTH Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect
IV ratios.
The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of
trying out various combinations of load and resistance factors on a
number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield a
safety index close to the target value of β = 3.5 are retained for potential
application. From these are selected constant load factors γ and
corresponding resistance factors ϕ for each type of structural component
reflecting its use.

This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of
bridges with spans not exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of
large bridges, the ratio of dead and live load force effects is rather high,
and could result in a set of resistance factors different from those found
acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is believed to be more
practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the use of
two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength
Load Combination I, depending on other permanent loads present. For
bridges with up to 180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where
the dead load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with
V wind of 90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT I
This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major
flood and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small.
Therefore, consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean
discharges shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake
is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge
with a 90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values.
Also related to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner
plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced
concrete structures. This load combination should also be used for the
investigation of slope stability.

Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using

this load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in
prestressed concrete components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and
slip of slip critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel
structures, and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of
view of load level, this combination is approximately halfway between
that used for Service I and Strength I Limit States.

24
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete
structures with the objective of crack control.

The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other

things, exclusion weight limits. The statistical significance of the 0.80
factor on live load is that the event is expected to occur about once a year
for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with more than
two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic
lane.
FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational
vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck
having a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.

The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level
found to be representative of the truck population with respect to a large
number of return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel
elements, components, and connections.

The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as specified in Table
B. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be investigated. For each load combination, every load
that is indicated to be taken into account and that is germane to the component being designed, including all
significant effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple presence
factor specified in, if applicable..
The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load combination,
both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.

In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall be applied to
the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the load factor that produces the more critical
combination shall be selected from Table C.
Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a component or bridge, the
minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also be investigated.

The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU), Creep (CR), and
Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for all other effects.

Table B - Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 γp 1.75 1.0 - - 1.0 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
(Unless noted) 0 0
STRENGTH II γp 1.35 1.0 - - 1.0 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
25
 0 0
STRENGTH γp - 1.0 1.4 - 1.0 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
III 0 0 0
STRENGTH - -
IV γp - 1.0 - - 1.0 0.50/1.20 - -
EH, EV, ES, 1.5 0 0
DW DC ONLY
STRENGTH V γp 1.35 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - -
0 0 0
EXTREME γp γEQ 1.0 - - 1.0 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT I 0 0 0
SERVICE I 1.0 1.00 1.0 0.3 1.0 1.0 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
0 0 0 0
SERVICE II 1.0 1.30 1.0 - - 1.0 1.00/1.20 - - - -
0 0 0
SERVICE III 1.0 0.80 1.0 - - 1.0 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - -
0 0 0
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY

Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction

CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream
EQ = earthquake load pressure
ES = earth surcharge load WL = wind on live load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill WS = wind load on structure

Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp

Type of Load Load Factor (γp)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
26
 • Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
• Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
• Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load can cause
a negative reaction, the load combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)
If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
Load Modifiers, ηi = ηD ηR ηI :
ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of
bridges.
• Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development
of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states prior to
failure.
For the strength limit state:
ηD ≥ 1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications
ηD ≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing measures have
been specified beyond those required by these Specifications
For all other limit states:
ηD = 1.00

• Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons not to use
them.
For the strength limit state:
ηR ≥1.05 for nonredundant members
=1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
≤0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy
For all other limit states:
ηR = 1.00

• Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only.
Some bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.
Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.
For the strength limit state:

27
 ηl ≥ 1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
≤ 0.95 For relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:
ηl = 1.00

For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors Ф shall be taken as

For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9

For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9
For bearing on concrete = 0.7
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0

28
 5.0 Superstructure

5.1 Introduction

An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the whole bridge
structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion of the gravity load the bridge
must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure is economical not _only material
requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size for substructure and foundations. A clear
understanding of the structural behavior of structural behavior under loads is essential for efficient design.

A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete, prestressed

concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of' forces in theses components is
essential for design purposes.

The following types of bridges are discussed as follows.

RC Bridge, Steel Bridge, Arch Bridge, Cable Stayed Bridge and Suspension Bridge

5.2 Reinforced concrete bridges:

Steel and concrete are construction materials.

Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges.
• adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes
• Low maintenance cost
• Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
• Cast-in-place Reinforced concrete structures are continuous and monolithic, attributes, which translate
into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also be given the desired aesthetic
appearance.
The disadvantage
• large dead weight
• difficulty to widen
• longer construction time
• requires formwork and false work
Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is taken uniformly
distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random positions both longitudinally and
transversely, and this affects the live load shared by various beams. This aspect of live load distribution is
one of the primary concerns in the analysis of bridge decks.

Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude of these
effects.
The following RC bridges will be discussed.

4.9)1.1.1.1. Slab bridge

4.9)1.1.1.2. T-girder bridge
4.9)1.1.1.3. Box girder bridge
4.9)1.1.1.4. Continuous RC bridge
4.9)1.1.1.5. RC rigid frame bridges
4.9)1.1.1.6.

29
 a) Slab Bridge:
Slab Bridge may be in the form

Uniform thickness

Voided slab
Slab Bridge normally requires more concrete and reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of the same span but
the formwork is simpler and less expressive, hence they are economical when these cast factor balance
favorably.

The structural configuration of bridge is shown below.

Post & raining

Curb

Notch
Slab
Edge beam

Typical Cross-section of Slab Bridge

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12 meters. The load carrying mechanism is
by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all directions. Application of a load on the
portion make the slab deflect into a dish shape locally, causing a two-dimensional system of bending and
twisting moments, the mechanism through which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck,
which are less severely loaded.

In the absence of closed form solution to the above equation, approximate methods are developed.
One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have been prepared
by Pucher or slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by Rusch and Heregnroder (1961)
and Dalas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs.

30
 Where: Z is the downward deflection of the plate
q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of tile plate

Grillage method is also used for analysis and softwares are available for this. Another method that AASHTO
recommends is the Strip Method.

Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’

Load distributions:
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines
of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:

E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1

The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than one lane
loaded shall be determined as:
W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 ≤
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken ≤ of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤ of the actual width or 18,000 mm for
multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified

Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or without an edge
beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the
barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width.

Section analysis:
Rectangular stress block is used for determination of section capacity.

Limits for reinforcement:

Maximum reinforcement c/de ratio and minimum reinforcement 0.03*fc’/fy

b) T-girder Bridge:

T- Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10meters-25 meters. These usually consist of equal1y
spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8-3.6m) spanning longitudinally between supports. The slab is
structural1y continuous across the top. The slab serves dual purpose of supporting the live load on the bridge
and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams. Diaphragms are provided transversely between the
beams over the supports and depending on the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The
purpose of providing diaphragms is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers,
the magnitude of the share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms relative to the
stringers and on the method of connectivity.
31
Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis and design.
Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders (AASHTO
Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by AASHTO, ILS for critical
position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken to apply to all positive moment regions
(Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be
considered distributed longitudinally in cast - in - place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2. I .3-1]
d) overhang, 11401-0.83lX
e) positive moment, 660+0.55S
f) negative moment, 1220+0.25S

Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of' the T-beams.

In the design of overhang deck slab design forces acting on the post and railings or barrier should be
considered.
Section analysis and design is similar to slab bridges

T-Girder
Transverse placement of lines of wheels that give maximum shear and moment is one line on the beam and
the other with span if>1.8m
ILS is used for critical moment position

Procedures
Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’

For moment:

Design for flexure:

c) Box Girder Bridge:

Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be reinforced concrete
or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be prestressed.

They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all interconnected by a
common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs and bottom slab are built
monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer must be provided between all parts of the
section.

Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and are particularly
suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also lends itself to aesthetic treatment.

Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;

1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is all advantage where headroom is limited like in urban
overpasses.
2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as aesthetic
advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed with in the box, facilitating rigid
connection to the pier.

32
3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable ducts, storm
drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.

Procedures
Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’

For moment:

Design for flexure:

Typical cross section is shown in Fig. below. While the interior webs are all vertical the exterior webs may
be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined their slope should preferably be IH: 2V.

Design Consideration:
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-beams with
transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell configuration.

The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments. Consequently they are
usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the case of continuous T-beams, the webs
must resist the negative girder moments as well as all the shear, and contain all the reinforcement for positive
moments.

The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a compression
flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also affords a superstructure
considerably thinner than a T- beam bridge of the same span and permits even longer spans to be built.

Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig. below a and b for analysis for exterior and interior girders
respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also same except the
compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is assumed effective for compression.

a. Exterior girder b. Interior girder

d) Continuous RC bridge:
Advantages
• Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since one line of bearings is used over the piers
• Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material
• Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and maintenance cost become
less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus ~proved.
• Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
• Better architectura1 appearance
• Lesser vibration and deflection
Disadvantages
33
• Analysis is laborious and time consuming
• Not suitable on yielding foundations

e) RC rigid frame bridges:

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connected to the bridge and piers. All the advantages of a
continuous span bridge are present here.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are
- More rigidity of the structure
- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
- No bearings are required
- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation materials. The analysis is
however, more laborious than the former.

5.3 Steel Bridge:

Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with reinforced concrete
deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.

Steel has got several advantages.

- It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield point.
- It has high tensile and compressive strengths.
- Past the yield point it offers considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
- Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
- They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
- Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures which translate into reduced
substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
- Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an important
consideration when overhead clearance is required.
- Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.
Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make then much less favorable than RC or PSC bridges
- Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance cost.
- Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the superstructure also.
Some steel bridge types:
- Rolled steel beam bridge
- Plate girder and steel box girder bridges
- Steel truss bridges
- Plate Deck-Stringer Bridges

5.4 Arch Bridge:

Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical reactions under
vertical loads.
Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the location of the
pressure line as shown in Figure below.

34
If the pressure line coincides with the axis of structure, (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross
sections will be subjected to compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls with in the
kern, there will not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differs moment may become
dominant. Figure below shows parts of arch bridges.

Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load moments in arch bridges
are almost absent when the arch is properly design.
The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the bending moment
and shear forces being small compared to Girder Bridge which requires larger section. This is due to the
hogging moment which balances the sagging moment created by the horizontal force, H, at the support.

The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ratio, r/l (1/6 to 1/10).
From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load with center of
line of the arch.

5.5 Cable Stayed Bridge:

Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers, deep valleys and for vehicular and
pedestrian bridges crossing wide interstate highways because they can provide long spans unobstructed by
piers.

Span arrangement types:

- Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)
- Three spans
- Multi Span

35
The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-stayed bridges. It
influences, in fact not only the structural performance of the bridge but also the method of erection and
economies.

Longitudinal cable arrangement:

- Radiating (converging)

- Harp

-
-
-
- Fan /Modified fan/

5.6 Suspension Bridge:

The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge form a catenary from which the hangers are
suspended and fixed to the deck.
Sag ratio for cables should be L/9-L/13
Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist of one main
span and two side spans.
L1/L =0.17100.50

The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and arc subjected only to tensile forces. The
stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distributes the live load of the deck on to the cables. Otherwise the
cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of concentrated live load and thus causes local angle
change in the deck system.
The stiffening trusses arc hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspenders, which are
usually high tensile cables.
Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the advantage of
increasing the aerodynamic stability

36
Simple Suspension Bridge

Suspension Bridge with Stiffening Truss

Suspension Bridge with Braced Chain

37
 6. SUBSTRUCTURE

6.1 Piers

Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate points and perform two main functions:

• transferring superstructure vertical loads to the foundations

• resisting horizontal forces acting on the bridge

Although piers are traditionally designed to resist vertical loads, it is becoming more and more common to
design piers to resist high lateral loads caused by seismic events.
Generally piers are subjected to:

• Dead loads
• Live loads and impact from the superstructure
• Wind loads on the structure and the live loads
• Centrifugal force from the superstructure
• Longitudinal force from live loads (vehicular braking force)
• Drag forces due to the friction at bearings
• Earth pressure
• Stream flow pressure
• Ice pressure
• Earthquake forces
• Thermal and shrinkage forces
• Ship impact forces
• Force due to prestressing of the superstructure
• Forces due to settlement of foundations

Pier Types
Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier (also known as a continuous wall pier) as its name would imply, consists
of a solid wall which extends up from a foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The top of the wall is
equipped with individual pedestals upon which the superstructure rests.
Their slender and streamlined proportions provide a minimal resistance to flood flows. Using solid wall piers
in stream or river crossings is advantageous since they are not as prone to accumulating debris as multiple
column piers.

Column Bent Pier: A column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists of a cap beam and supporting
columns in a frame-type structure. In dense urban interchanges, use of column bent piers can lead to a
cluttered image producing a “concrete jungle” effect.

38
 Figure: Solid wall pier Figure: column bent pier

Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape of a
hammer. They are predominately found in urban settings because they are both attractive and occupy a
minimum of space, thereby providing room for underpass traffic.

Figure: Hammerhead pier

Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a variation on the column bent pier with the supporting columns and
footing replaced with individual supporting piles. The end piles are generally equipped with a batter in the
transverse direction.

39
 Figure: Pile bent pier

Finally selection of pier is made based on the following considerations.

• Aesthetics
• Economy
• Flow of water and traffic under the bridge
• Superstructure

Design Criteria: In general, the design of a highway bridge pier should address:
❏ Safety against overturning
❏ Safety against sliding
❏ Safety against bearing failure of the soil
❏ Safety against excessive or differential settlement

6.1 Abutments

Backwall and Wingwall

Figure: Backwall and Wingwall

Wingwall
A wingwall is a side wall to the abutment back wall or stem designed to assist in confining earth behind the
abutment backwall.

Backwall
A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment acting as a retaining
structure at each approach.

Abutment is component of a bridge

• provides the vertical support to the bridge superstructure at the bridge ends
• connects the bridge with the approach roadway
• retains the roadway base materials

From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow that the bridge
overpasses, bridge abutments can be divided into two categories: open-end abutment and closed-end
abutment.
40
For the open-end abutment, there are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the edge of the roadway
or river canal that the bridge overpasses. Those slopes provide a wide open area for the traffic flows or water
flows under the bridge. It imposes much less impact on the environment and the traffic flows under the
bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also, future widening of the roadway or water flow canal under the
bridge by adjusting the slope ratios is easier. However, the existence of slopes usually requires longer bridge
spans and some extra earthwork.

Figure: open-end abutment

The closed-end abutment is usually constructed close to the edge of the roadways or water canals. Because
of the vertical clearance requirements high abutment walls must be constructed. The high abutment walls and
larger backfill volume often result in higher abutment construction costs and more settlement of road
approaches than for the open-end abutment.

Figure: Closed-end abutment

Generally, the open-end abutments are more economical, adaptable, and attractive than the closed-end
abutments. However, bridges with closed-end abutments have been widely constructed in urban areas and for
rail transportation systems because of the right-of-way restriction and the large scale of the live load for
trains, which usually results in shorter bridge spans.

Based on the connections between the abutment stem and the bridge superstructure, the abutments also can
be grouped in two categories: the monolithic abutment and the seat type abutment.

41
The monolithic abutment is monolithically constructed with the bridge superstructure. There is no relative
displacement allowed between the bridge superstructure and abutment.
The seat-type abutment is constructed separately from the bridge superstructure. The bridge superstructure
seats on the abutment stem through bearing.

Figure: a. Monolithic abutment b. Seat-type abutment

Abutments can be classified based on the load resisting mechanism as:
1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting with its dead weight and dead weight of retained soil or
backfill on its inclined back face. They can be constructed using stone masonry or concrete masonry.
2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance derived from cantilever action and usually constructed from
reinforced concrete.

3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to cantilever ones but ties called counterforts are provided to tie
the stem to the footing.
4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or fibers to
reinforce the fill material in the lateral direction so that the integrated fill material will act as a gravity
retaining structure. Overturning and sliding are needed to be checked under the assumption that the
reinforced soil body acts as a gravity retaining wall.

Figure: (4) (1) (2) (3)

Design of Abutments

Loads:
All loads acting on piers act on abutments except forces that result from buoyancy, stream flow and collision
of barge.
Impact will not also be considered for the design of abutments.
Earth pressure is the major force acting on abutments in addition to those forces mentioned.
In seismic areas, seismic forces should be considered for the back face of the wall due to inertia of the
retained soil mass.
Mononobe-Okabe method is used for seismic analysis.

42
In this analysis for free standing abutment
The horizontal inertia force
FH=Kh*Ws
The vertical inertia force
FV=Kv*Ws
Where Kh=αo/2 and Kv is in between 0.3*Kh and 0.5*Kh
αo is bedrock acceleration, in Ethiopia case refer to EBCS 8,1995.
If the abutment is restrained from horizontal displacement, i.e. abutment supported on batter piles, Kh=1.5
αo.
In case of seismic active pressure force, the load is applied at a larger distance from static active pressure
case i.e. at 0.6*H.

Design:
Length and shape of abutment wingwalls are usually dictated by terrain, height of bridge and level of HWM.
Length of abutment backwall is governed by width of the superstructure.
Design of abutments is started by providing preliminary dimension then checked for different design criteria.
Abutments shall be checked for the followings.
• The location of the resultant on the base is determined by balancing moments about the toe of the
wall. Location of resultant X from the toe is:
B/3≤x≤2B/3 base on soil
B/4≤x≤3B/4 base on rock
• Check for sliding
Фs*Fru≥∑γi*Phi
Where:
Фs=performance factor [used to account for uncertainties in structural properties, soil properties, variability
in workmanship, and inaccuracies in the design equations to estimate the capacity.]
Fru=Nu*tanδb+Ca*Be
Nu=factored vertical resultant (force/length)
δb=friction angle between base and soils (degrees)
Ca= adhesion (force/length2)
Be=effective length of base in compression (length)
γi= load factor force component
Phi=horizontal earth pressure force causing sliding (force/length)
• Check for bearing

σmax ≤ σall

6.2 Scour

Scour is the washing away of streambed material by water channel flow. Typically, scour occurs when the
water channel becomes narrowed or constricted. From basic fluid dynamics, we know that a smaller opening
leads to a greater velocity (Q = Av). If constrictions in the channel are significant, the velocity of the stream
can increase such that the substructure footings and/or piles become undermined. Sharp bends or curves in
the water channel also increase velocity which can create cross-currents and turbulence. Scour can either
occur locally at specific substructure components (local scour) or over the entire structure crossing the
channel (general scour).

43
The removal of material from under a pier’s foundation, often associated with scour, is known as
undermining or undercutting.

Figure: An exposed pier footing shows evidence of undermining.

Scour generally takes place because one or a combination of the following conditions occurs:
❏ Natural conditions in the channel
❏ A constriction in the channel
❏ The bridge itself being a constriction

When scour occurs at a specific localized point in the channel, such as a pier, abutment, drainage structure,
or some other obstruction, it is known as local scour. Local scour is evidenced by turbulence around piers
which erodes material from under the foundation. If scour takes place over a large area of the channel it is
known as general scour. General scour occurs over a long period of time and is initiated by an alteration in
channel flow patterns.
Scour which results from a reduction in the cross-sectional area of a channel due to the placement of an
obstruction such as a highway bridge or drainage structure is known as constriction scour.

The total potential scour at a highway crossing usually comprises the following components:

• Aggradations and degradation:

When natural or human activities cause streambed elevation changes over a long period of time, aggradation
or degradation occurs. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded from the channel or watershed
upstream of the bridge, whereas degradation involves the lowering or scouring of the streambed due to a
deficit in sediment supply from upstream.
• stream contraction scour:
Contraction scour usually occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is reduced, either by a natural
contraction or contraction of a bridge. The decreased flow area causes an increase in average velocity in the
stream and bed shear stress through the contraction reach. This in turn triggers an increase in erosive forces
in the contraction. Hence, more bed material is removed from the contracted reach than is transported into
the reach.
44
 • local scour:
When upstream flow is obstructed by obstruction such as piers, abutments, and embankments, flow vortices
are formed at their base as shown in Figure below (known as horseshoe vortex). This vortex action removes
bed material from around the base of the obstruction. A scour hole eventually develops around the base.

Figure: Schematic representation of local scour at a cylindrical pier

• lateral stream migration:

Streams are dynamic. The lateral migration of the main channel within a floodplain may increase pier scour,
embankment or approach road erosion, or change the total scour depth by altering the flow angle of attack at
piers.

Since scour problem is dangerous to a bridge, proper consideration should be made in design of substructure.
If the scour depth exceeds the foundation depth there is possibility of bridge failure. Therefore, to avoid
bridge failures due to erosion, the depth of the pier should be more than the scour depth. A general rate is to
take depth of erosion as four times the height which the water level raises at the obstruction section. So the
foundation of the substructure should be located at least the depth of erosion below the stream bed.

Scour Protection:
Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of the flood.
Riprap:
It is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection and loose bank or
embankment material from erosion by water current. The stone elements must be heavy enough not to be
carried away by water.
Gabion and Reno mattresses:
The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and 4m long by
1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high. Reno mattress is a mattress - shaped version of the gabion for use when the
gabions height and bulk are not needed as in lining river beds and banks. Their standard size is 6m length,
divided in to 6 compartments of 1m width.
Filter Blankets:
If the river bed and bank material are non - cohesive and fine, they may be washed away through the spaces
between the voids in riprap or gabion lining. This can be prevented by using textile filter or using gravel
filter.
Vegetation:
Many plant types can be used to protect river banks against erosion. The most successful ones are almost
always those found growing naturally along the river being bridged.

45
7. BEARINGS AND RAILINGS

7.1 BEARINGS

Bearings are structural devices positioned between the bridge superstructure and the substructure.

Their principal functions are as follows:

1. To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and

2. To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the substructure.
Movements should be accommodated properly and these result from
a) longitudinal movement due to temperature changes-reversible
b) rotation due to deflection of girders- live load deflection is reversible
c) vertical movement due to settlement of support- irreversible
d) movement due to shrinkage, creep or prestressing-irreversible

Bearings are categorized in to two as

a) Fixed bearings – are fixed against translation, but free to rotate
b) Expansion bearings-are free to translate and rotate

Selection of the type depends on the type of superstructure, type of substructure supports and the length of
the span.

- A simply supported span requires fixed bearings at one and expansion joints at the other.
- A continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing on all other supports
- A two span girder will have fixed bearing at the centre support and expansion bearings at the two
abutments

Bearings are important components of bridges and call for care in design, skill in execution, regular attention
in maintenance. Faulty design or malfunctioning bearings due to clogging by debris have often resulted in
collapse of bridges due to the high stresses induced due to restrained motion.
On certain major bridges bearing cost is as high as 10-15% of the total cost. It is worth designing carefully
and inspecting regularly for maintenance.
Types of Bearings
For slab bridges no special bearings are provided because the translational movement is very small. Edges of
supports are beveled to allow for rotation.
The following are the different types of bearings for girder bridges
- Sliding plate bearing- is the simplest type of bearing. This utilizes one plate sliding on another. This
type is used for bridges up to 30m span. Flat plates were common but due to freezing and high
frictional forces the surface of the upper plate is slightly curved as shown in Figure below.

46
 Figure: Sliding plate bearing
- Roller bearing- in this type rotation is accommodated by the pin and translation by the use of a roller
or a group of rollers. See Figure below. This is used for spans of moderate length.
- Rocker bearing- this is used for longer spans and is used to accommodate large live load deflections.
See Figure below.
In seismic areas suitable guides should be provided to prevent the roller and rocker components from
being displaced off abutments and piers during earthquakes.
-

47
 Figure: Roller bearing Figure: Rocker bearing

- Elastomeric bearing- is made of a polymeric substance called elastomer (either natural or synthetic
rubber).
This can be reinforced with steel plates, which are usually the case, or may be unreinforced. This is
very strong in compression and relatively week in shear, thus allowing horizontal displacement. This
has shown good weathering performance and so incurs low maintenance cost. This type is favored for
bearings. This is used for medium to large spans. See Figure below.
- Lead Rubber bearing-is an elastomeric bearing equipped with lead core and is used in highly
seismic areas. See Figure below. Under normal loading conditions, the lead core resists lateral loads.
Under seismically induced dynamic loads, however, the lead core yields and assists the elastomeric
material in resisting loads while at the same time accommodating lateral flexibility.

Figure: Elastomeric bearing Lead Rubber bearing

7.2 RAILINGS

Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and pedestrian. There are three types of
railings.
1. Traffic railings
2. Pedestrian railings
3. Combination railings

The following guideline indicate the application of various types of rails

- Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the execution use of highway traffic
- A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and side walk is used on low-speed highways.
- On high speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board pedestrian railing and an
inboard combination railing

Aesthetics and freedom of view from passing vehicles should also be taken in to consideration.

Traffic Railing
The primary purpose of traffic railings is to contain and redirect errant vehicles. Specifically they serve the
purposes of

48
 - primarily containing the average vehicle
- protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing
- protecting other vehicles near the collision
- protecting people and property on roadway and nearby areas underneath

A traffic railing should provide a smooth and continuous face on the traffic side.
Steel and concrete posts should set back from the face to the rail.
Pedestrian Railing
Pedestrian railing can be made from concrete, metal and timber.
A pedestrian walkway should be separated from roadway by a barrier curb, traffic railing or combination
railing.

Combination Railing
Consists of traffic and pedestrian railings

49
8. CULVERTS AND LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS

8.1 CULVERTS

Culverts are cross drainage structures used to drain rain run off collected by side ditches from one side of the
highway to the other. In any highway or railway project, the majority of cross drainage works fall under this
category.

Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road crosses the waterway
on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than a bridge.

In addition to providing culverts at the lowest point, it is good practice to install, culverts for cross drainage
at regular intervals down a long grade.

As a general rule, there should be at least one culvert every 300m, unless the road follows a ridge. Therefore,
cost of culverts account for a significant proportion of the project cost.

Culverts are usually constructed from:

- Precast concrete jointed pipes
- Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes, prefabricated or built in situ
- corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated panels

Single precast concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small openings up to 2m2, while multiple
concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas. Alternatively, reinforced concrete box culverts
are used with internal box size up to 4m x 3.5m. Twin or multiple boxes may be required for larger waterway
openings. In difficult ground conditions a flexible steel pipe has an advantage over a rigid concrete culvert
through its ability to accommodate a certain amount of differential settlement over the length of the culvert
without overstressing the material. A culvert made of rigid concrete sections will not be tolerant to
differential settlement unless it is specifically designed for such conditions either by increasing its structural
strength or by segmenting the culvert along its length to allow it to flex. In theory such a solution may appear
to be satisfactory, but the provision of watertight joints to permit flexing to occur can be costly and the
satisfactory performance of the joints cannot always be guaranteed. Leakage from culverts, particularly those
carrying embankments, can have serious consequences, since weakening of the embankment material may
lead to an embankment failure. If properly constructed a reinforced concrete culvert is likely to have a
service life in excess of 60 years and will almost certainly be more durable and require less maintenance than
a steel pipe. By comparison, a corrugated steel pipe culvert, well protected against corrosion by plating and
bitumen coating, can be expected to have a working life in the order of 30 to 40 years in a non-aggressive
environment. It is usual to design culverts to last the life of the highway. Despite the best efforts of the
engineer, it must be expected that some culverts will become silted or obstructed by debris. For this reason
pipes of internal diameter less than 0.6m are not recommended since they are difficult to clean.

Like bridges, culverts are designed to be large enough to pass the design flood without damage to the
embankment or surrounding land.

Highway drainage ditches collect general run-off water which is cross drained using culverts. This
concentration of flow is almost certain to cause erosion damage to many types of soil. Before or at the
entrance to culverts it is important to control the flow velocity, particularly since an abrupt change in
direction of flow may occur at these points making erosion damage more likely. Control may be achieved by
50
reducing the gradient, installing check-drains or by building a drop inlet. It is also important to control the
velocity of flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road embankment or surrounding farmland
occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For this reason, where gradients arc steep, the arrangements
shown in Figure below are preferred. A curtain wall is often necessary at the outlet of a culvert carrying
more than a minimal flow, in order to prevent scour undermining the structure. A concrete or rip rap apron
may be required to dissipate the energy of the discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a
paved channel until the natural gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows with consequential
deepening of the channel.

Figure: Check dams

The proper location of each culvert is important because it affects the drainage pattern and hence the strength
of the surrounding soils, the area of waterway, ditch and culvert maintenance, and erosion damage.
There are four rules concerning location and alignment of culverts
- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is an established stream
or not.
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing alignment, unless the
alignment can be improved.
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could cause severe
damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would be expensive.
The gradient of the culvert is important because it affects future maintenance. If it is too steep, it will
encourage erosion at the outlet. If it is less steep than the stream, there is likely to be a sediment problem. A
gradient of 2 to 4 per cent is advisable where silts are carried in the flow; a minimum of 0.5 per cent is
recommended for clear water. It is also important to set the culvert invert at the same level as the natural
stream bed. Culverts are frequently set low to avoid humps in the road above. Where the road embankment is
not high enough to provide adequate clearance above the pipe, the ditch has to be lowered on both sides of
the road or the embankment raised. This may necessitate widening the side slopes and demonstrates the
importance of detailing drainage structures early in the design of a road. Where an established stream is met
at an angle to the road alignment, it is usually better to follow the line of the stream with a skewed culvert,
even though the construction cost will be increased by the greater length. An abrupt change in the direction
of flow at the inlet and outlet of a square crossing may be accommodated without problem for most of the
year, but when heavy rains cause maximum flow the change of direction can result in severe erosion or
wash-out. It may also be necessary to stabilize a shifting channel or even move it to improve the geometry
where stream and road interact. The principal objectives here are:

- to avoid a bend at either end of the culvert if possible

- if a bend is unavoidable, to place it at the outlet

Any change of stream channel must be constructed so that there is no possibility of the stream regaining its
original course.

51
HEADWALLS

Headwalls retain and protect the embankment at the ends of a culvert and help to counteract the dislocation
of jointed pipes due to the spreading forces at the base of large embankments. They also divert debris from
falling into the waterway, reduce seepage of water into the embankment and prevent small animals from
burrowing alongside the pipe. Where conditions favor erosion, headwalls should incorporate deep curtain
walls and side slope protection in the form of gabions or hand-pitched stone.
Since large headwalls are expensive to build, it is advisable initially to make the culvert pipe long enough to
reach the toe of the embankment. Headwalls are usually made of masonry or concrete.

CONCRETE RIPE CULVERTS

On most road constructions, sections of concrete pipe are butted together and connected by mortar, and the
embankment material is compacted around them. This is cheap and often serves for several years. A far
better quality culvert is obtained by surrounding the pipe with concrete. If the sub grade is likely to settle
under the weight of the embankment, the concrete surround should be reinforced to take tensile stresses. All
soft clay material and rock should be excavated from below the pipe to a depth of at least 200mm and
replaced with good granular material, well compacted.

FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS

These are made from pre-formed corrugated sections bolted together to form a circular or elliptical tube.
They can accept a certain amount of longitudinal or radial deformation without sustaining damage and so are
better suited to unstable conditions than rigid concrete structures. They are also easier to transport and faster
to construct than the equivalent size of pre-cast pipe culvert, but require specialist manufacture.
All soft unstable material should be excavated and back filled to foundation level with gravel mixture,
crushed stone or other suitable material. In the case of rock foundations, the rock should be excavated to at
least 250mm below the foundation level and wide enough to prevent the pipe resting directly on rock at any
point. It should then be back filled to provide a cushion for the pipe.
Back filling will be made in layers of approximately 200mm, loading each side and layer evenly and fully
compacted before placing the next. The inside shape may need to be protected by strutting as the fill is
built up on each side and eventually above the pipe.
All the fill material should be of good quality, extending to a distance roughly equal to the pipe diameter
each side and above, or up to the road base if this distance is less.
The degree of protection against corrosion required to extend the working life of a corrugated steel pipe
structure is determined on the basis of:
- The importance of the structure and its required working life
- The corrosive nature of the environment in which it exists.
Durability studies indicate that metal loss associated with corrosion usually originates on the interior surface
of the structure and progresses towards the exterior or buried face. The conclusion is that protective
treatment to the exposed surfaces should generally be superior to that applied to the buried surfaces. All
corrugated steel structures should be hot-dipped galvanized and hot coated with bitumen on the inside.
Bituminous paving to the invert of the pipe will also help extend the life of the structure.

REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS

Reinforced concrete box culverts may be constructed either as a monolithic box or as a U section with a
simply supported top slab propping the sidewalls. Twin or multiple cell box culverts are used where the
52
horizontal opening is more than about 4m. These too may be constructed with monolithic top slab and walls
or with a separately cast lid. Culverts with separately constructed top slabs are simpler to construct because
they require less complicated steel reinforcement and, though containing more material, they generally offer
a more economical form of construction. Owing to reversal of bending moment in the walls and bottom slab,
reinforcement to both faces of these elements is required but the top slab of a single cell culvert requires
only bottom reinforcement.
For a twin box culvert with a separately cast top slab, the outer walls are again propped apart and the
centre wall may be positively located to the top slab by the provision of dowel bars. The top slab of a
twin box culvert is designed as a two span continuous beam spanning over the central wall and requires
top reinforcement in the region of the central wall.

8.2 LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS

In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively simple alternatives
to conventional bridges. These are of two basic types:
- fords and bed-level causeways
- vented causeways and submersible bridges
Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic volumes are low or where a reasonably short detour
provides access to an all-weather bridge. For most of the year the maximum depth of water over the carriage
way should be less than 150mm. The success or service life of the structure will depend considerably on its
hydraulic design. Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional bridges, will be constructed so that they
cause little interference with the design flood. Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt
river flow and so are liable to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the river bed or banks which in turn
may affect the road approaches to the crossing. Since fords and bed-level causeways arc overtopped by all
water flowing in the river channel there is no reason to raise the road surface above the stream bed. Vented
causeways and submersible bridges usually present a dry carriage way for ordinary flows and are overtopped
during the design flood. The best location for a low level crossing is similar to that recommended for a
conventional bridge, with the exception that a broad, straight stretch of river will provide slower and
shallower water as well as easier road approaches. The maximum gradient for motor traffic should be 10 per
cent, and for animals 5 per cent. The change of gradient should be gradual to prevent the underside of
vehicles touching the road and to preserve long sight distances. Equal cut and fill construction of the
approach roads requires less work than the cut and remove spoil, but the placing of the spoil in the river
channel may cause scour problems during a flood. On roads where speeds are naturally slow and where the
horizontal curve on the approach side is clearly visible, steep approaches may be relieved by a diagonal
descent of the river bank. Even where the road is a single track, it is advisable to make the crossing and its
approaches two lanes in width, so as to allow traffic to pass any vehicle, which breaks down or fails to mount
the gradient.

FORDS

Fords are the simplest form of river crossing at places where the stream is wide, shallow and slow, the
approaches gentle, and the surface firm. The running surface in the stream can be strengthened and made
more even using stones brought in and buried just below the surface. Alternatively, if stones are carried in
the flow, these may be trapped by barriers made of boulders, gabions or piles.

a. Boulders [fig. a]
Large stones placed across the river bed at the downstream side of the crossing are claimed to filter the flow
of water and retain gravel and sand, which eventually form a more level and even surface for vehicles.

53
 b. Gabions
A more expensive but durable improvement may be made by replacing the boulders with gabions to trap
river gravel or retain imported material, as shown in Fig b. It is important that gabions protrude only 150-
300mm above the natural bed level of the river, depending on the nature of the bed material, otherwise they
will act as a weir and cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing.
As an alternative to conventional gabions, tube baskets can be made from a roll of fencing mesh filled with
stone or shingle. During filling, the edges are raised and then bent over at the top to form a tube and tied;
finally a wire rope is attached as shown in Fig c. After installation, sand and gravel transported by the stream
is trapped behind the baskets and provides a firmer fairly level surface suitable for vehicles.
c. Piles
Where gabions are unobtainable, timber piles driven into the river bed with or without stone protection make
an acceptable cut-off wall. To be fully effective, timber piles should have a length of about 2m, and should
be placed at no more than 0.6m centers. If the river is fast a continuous line of piles may be necessary. A
curtain wall may be required on the upstream as well as the downstream side if the roadbed is erodible.
The top of the piles should be no more than 0.3m above bed level.
N.B: All types of ford may require scour protection on the downstream side, as shown in the Figures.

54
BED LEVEL CAUSEWAYS
Where the type of traffic or the distance to an alternative crossing justifies the expense, a pavement may be
laid on the river bed. A paved ford is also called a bed-level causeway, drift, paved dip or Irish bridge. Three
common designs are shown in Figure. To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls or aprons
are usually required on both the upstream and the downstream side and these must continue up the
approaches to the height of the design flood.

55
Figure. Bed level causeways

If the bed is inerodible the causeway need not be provided with curtain walls, but the bed on both the
upstream and downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
Fig (a) Shows a section through a basic bed-level causeway suitable for maximum water flows below2m/sec
and for light traffic. The crossing shown in Fig (b) requires good concrete technology and may sustain
damage to the apron that is difficult to repair. Fig (c) shows a design employing a practical combination of
concrete pavement with flexible protection that is more suited to routine repair than the rigid concrete curtain
wall.

VENTED CAUSEWAYS

56
Vented causeways are designed to pass an ordinary flood with very little water overtopping the carriageway,
but may still be inundated and unusable for a few days each year. These structures present a considerable
obstacle to the free flow of both normal flow and the design flood, so they must be built massive enough to
withstand water pressure and debris impact.

Figure: Vented causeways

They must also be provided with adequate scour protection where the bed is erodible, and marker posts.
The vents are usually concrete or corrugated steel pipes from 0.6 to 1.0m diameter, set in a block of concrete
or masonry. Where prefabricated pipes are not available, vaulted masonry tunnels have proved successful.
Concrete or masonry retaining walls and aprons are required to channel the flow and prevent scour at both
entrance and exit.
In order to prevent blockage of the stream by debris or silting, careful attention is required to setting the
pipes level with the stream bed and at the same gradient. No part of the vents should be narrower than the
entrances and wedge-shaped deflector ramps may be required on the upstream side to; guide large floating
debris above the vents. Alternatively, a grill of posts installed upstream of the causeway will collect tree
branches before they reach the structure. The capacity of the vents is sufficient to pass all ordinary floods
without damage and with no more than 150mm of water over-topping the structure.

SUBMERSIBLE BRIDGES
Where the traffic is dense enough to justify a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood and the design
flood is much greater, a submersible bridge is an alternative to a vented causeway. Submersible bridges are
able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a causeway of the same height but are more susceptible to damage
by the design flood. The overturning moment at the pier foundations becomes very large unless the piers are
57
kept short, and the horizontal and vertical forces on the deck require solid restraint. Because of these
difficulties, submersible bridges are not recommended for any foundation other than rock, and even then a
vented causeway or conventional bridge may be a more durable alternative. Construction is usually of
reinforced concrete with continuous reinforcement between the sub-structures and the deck.

58