Fluid Power Systems and

Factory Automation
MTE 502
Fluid power generating / utilizing elements
• Hydraulic pumps and motors- gears, vane, piston pumps
• motors-selection and specification-drive characteristics - linear actuator
• Types
• mounting details
• Cushioning
• Power packs-Construction
• Reservoir capacity
• Heat dissipation
• Accumulators
• Standard circuit symbols and analysis of circuits [6]
Control and regulation elements
• Direction flow and pressure control valves-
• methods of actuation,
• types and sizing of ports
• pressure and temperature compensation,
• overlapped and under lapped spool valves
• operating characteristics
• electro hydraulic system
• electro hydraulic servo valves
• different types characteristics and performance. [6]
Comparison of hydraulics & pneumatics
• Need for automation,
• hydraulic & pneumatic comparison
• ISO symbols for fluid power elements,
• hydraulic, pneumatics - selection criteria and examples related to
selection criteria. [6]
Advanced hydraulics
• Types of proportional control devices- pressure relief, flow control,
direction control,
• hydraulic symbols, spool configurations, selection & sizing with
reference to manufacturer’s data,
• electrical operation, basic electrical circuits and operation, solenoid
design,
• comparison between conventional and proportional valves.
[6]
Methods of control
• Comparison between analogue and digital control, proportional
attributes, ramp, gain, dead band, dither, pulse width modulation,
amplifier cards, principles of operation, design and application,
analogue and digital, closed loop, internal and external feedback
devices, operation and application of closed loop systems, integrated
electronics option frequency response, principles of operation, bode
diagrams and their use in manufacturer’s data, PID control, practical
exercises, commissioning and set-up procedures, open loop circuits,
closed loop circuits, interface to the control.
[8]
Electrical control of fluid power
• Electrical control of hydraulic and pneumatic, use of relays, timers,
counters,
• PLC ladder diagram for various circuits, motion controllers, use of
field busses in circuits
• electronic circuits for various open loop control and close loop (servo)
control of hydraulics and pneumatics.
[6]
Circuit design
• Typical industrial hydraulic circuits-
• design methodology –
• ladder diagram-cascade method truth table-karnaugh map method-
sequencing circuits-combinational and logic circuit.
[4]
Applications of propositional and servo valves
• Velocity control, position control and directional control applications
• example: paper industry, process industry, printing sawmill,
woodworking, extrusion press, powder methodology press,
continuous casting, food and packaging, injection moulding, solar
energy and automobile. [6]
References:

• Anthony Esposito, Fluid Power Systems and control, Prentice-Hall,

1988
• R. Srinivasan Hydraulic and Pneumatic Control, published by Vijay
Nicole Imprints Private Ltd. 1990
• Herbert R. Merritt, Hydraulic control systems, John Wiley & Sons,
Newyork, 1967
• Dudbey.A.Peace, Basic Fluid Power, Prentice Hall Inc, 1967
• Peter Rohner, Fluid Power logic circuit design, The Macmillan Press
Ltd., London, 1979
Pumping theory
Gear pumps are rotary pumps

Spur gear- Noisy at relatively high speed

Helical gear- excessive end thrust
Herringbone gear- greater flow rate for less pulsating
Advantages of gear pumps The disadvantages are as follows:
1.They are self-priming. 1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it
2.They give constant delivery for a given speed. will damage pump.
3. They are compact and light in weight. 2. Variable speed drives are required to change the
4. Volumetric efficiency is high. delivery.
3. If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the
fluid to be pumped is used as lubricant.
• Ideal discharge speed characteristic
Leakage loss (Flow back)

Pressure (P)
Discharge (Q)

Actual Ideal Discharge Curve

Discharge
Curve

Discharge (Q)
Speed (N)

Volumetric efficiency= (Qact/Qth)*100

Pump slippage (S) = (Qth–Qact)
S= ((Qth–Qact)/Qth)*100
Problems
• A gear pump has a 75 mm outer diameter, a 50mm inside diameter
and a 25 mm width. If the volumetric efficiency is 90% at rated
pressure, what is the corresponding actual flow rate? The pump
speed is 1000 rpm.
LOBE PUMPS
• The lobe pump is a close relative of the external
gear pump
• Two three-lobed, gear-shaped units are often used to
form the pumping element
• Output flow is larger than a gear pump of comparable
physical size because of pumping chamber geometry
• Lower pressure rating than gear pumps
• Tend to have a pulsating output flow

17
• 1.As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on
the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped
by the lobes as they rotate.
• 2.Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in pockets between
the lobes and the casing (it does not pass between the lobes).
• 3.Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces the liquid through the
outlet port under pressure.
Internal Gear Pump
The internal spur gear drives the outside ring gear which is set
off center. Between the two gears on one side is a crescent-
shaped spacer around which oil is carried.
The inlet and outlet ports are located in the end plates
between where the teeth mesh and the ends of the crescent-
shaped spacer.
 In operation, the internal gear drives the external
ring gear and makes a fluid tight seal at the place
where the teeth mesh.
 Rotation causes the teeth to unmesh near the inlet port, the cavity volume to increase, and suction to occur. Oil is
trapped between the internal and external gear teeth on both sides of the crescent-shaped spacer and is carried from the
inlet to the outlet cavity of the pump. Meshing of the gear teeth reduces the volume in the high pressure cavity near the
outlet port and fluid exits from the outlet port.
 Wear on internal gear pumps has a tendency to reduce the volumetric efficiency more quickly than on external gear
pumps. They are used mostly for lubrication and charge pumps at pressures under 1000 psi.
 Gerotor Pump
 This pump operates very much like the internal gear pump. The
inner gear rotor (gerotor) is power driven and draws the outer
gear rotor around as they mesh together.
 The tips of the inner and outer rotors make contact to seal the
pumping chambers from each other.
 The inner gear has one tooth less than the outer gear, and the
volumetric displacement is determined by the space formed by
the extra tooth in the outer rotor.
 The gerotor pump is a compact and simple pump with only two
moving
elements.
 VANE PUMPS
• Vane pumps are positive-displacement,
fixed or variable delivery, rotary units.
• Design is commonly used in industrial
applications
• Delivery can range up to 283.9 lpm (75
gpm)
• Maximum pressure of about 2000 psi
(13.79 N/mm2)

21
 VANE PUMP
• Vane pump consists of a slotted rotor,
fitted with moveable vanes, that
rotates within a cam ring in the pump
housing
• Rotor is off center in the ring, which
creates pumping chambers that vary in
volume as the pump rotates
• As chamber volume increases, pressure
decreases, bringing fluid into the pump
• As volume decreases, fluid is forced out
into the system

22
Parts of a typical vane pump

23
VANE PUMPS
• Vane pump may be pressure unbalanced (single acting) or pressure
balanced (double acting)
• Unbalanced has only one inlet and one discharge, which places a side load on
the shaft
• Balanced has two inlets and two discharges opposite each other, creating a
pressure balance and, therefore, no load on the shaft

24
UNBALANCED VANE PUMPS
• Components: cam surface and the rotor, into which vanes are slip fit.

• The rotor is keyed to the drive shaft and therefore rotates as the pump
is driven.

• As the rotor spins, the vanes are kept in contact with the cam surface
by centrifugal force, which may be supplemented by a spring or by fluid
pressure.

• The cam surface and rotor are mounted eccentrically to one another,
which causes the vanes to stroke as the rotor spins.
Unbalanced vane pump…
• As the rotor turns, pumping chambers between the vanes are opened
near the inlet, creating a vacuum that allows atmospheric pressure to
push the fluid in.
• The fluid is then carried between the vanes to the outlet where the
vanes are pushed back in and the pumping chamber volume is
reduced.
• The reduction in volume near the outlet causes the fluid to be forced
out.
Unbalanced vane pump…
• The pressurized pumping chambers are located on only one side of the
drive shaft.
• The outlet port at the top is under pressure, while the inlet Port at the
bottom is at vacuum.
• Results in a net force on the pump shaft bearing that can cause excessive
vibration and wear at high speeds or pressures.
• For this reason, these pumps are best suited to low-pressure applications.
BALANCED VANE PUMP
• Has an elliptical cam surface, which causes the vanes to stroke twice per
revolution of the pump shaft.

• The pumping chambers therefore undergo an increase and decrease in volume

twice per cycle, which necessitates two inlet and two outlet ports.

• The inlets and outlets are combined into a common inlet and outlet within the
pump housing.

• This configuration results to equal pressure on opposite sides of the pump shaft.
• Vane pumps are more efficient than gear pumps, but
less efficient than piston pumps.
• They are moderately tolerant of contamination.
• Unbalanced vane pumps are low-pressure pumps,
typically operating between 500 psi and 2000 psi.
• Balanced vane pumps can handle higher pressures.
They can be rated for pressures as high as 4000 psi.
Additional Design Features of Pumps

Unbalanced-vane pumps can be designed to produce

variable flow outputs
• A cam ring moves in relation to the center of the rotor
• No flow output is produced when the centers of the ring and
rotor are concentric
• Flow increases as the centers move apart

32
Additional Design Features
of Pumps
• A variable-flow, unbalanced-vane pump

33
Expression for theoretical discharge of Vane Pump

e
e
Piston Pumps
PISTON PUMPS
The piston is drawn back quickly, creating a vacuum at its inlet, allows
atmospheric pressure to push fluid from the reservoir into the pump.
The piston is then driven forward to expel the fluid towards the
system
Check valves are used on the inlet and outlet lines.
Two main types of power piston pumps that are commonly used in
hydraulics: radial and axial piston pumps.
PISTON PUMPS
1. Axial piston pump
Bent-axis-type piston pump.
Inline or Swash-plate-type piston pump.

2. Radial piston pump.

• A basic piston pump consists of a housing that supports a pumping

mechanism and a motion-converting mechanism
• Pumping mechanism is a block containing cylinders fitted with pistons and
valves
• Motion converter changes rotary to reciprocating motion via cams, eccentric
ring, swash plate, or bent-axis designs
• Rotating the pump shaft causes piston movement that pumps the fluid
37
Pump Design & Operation: Inline
• Inline has the cylinder block and pistons located on the
same axis as the pump input shaft
• Pistons reciprocate against a swash plate
• Very popular design used in many applications
• The pistons are aligned or parallel with the pump shaft axis
• Pistons are arranged in a circular pattern around the pump
shaft.
• Turning the pump shaft causes the pistons & piston block
to rotate.
• The housing, end cap, and piston shoe remain stationary.

38
• The pistons ride the piston shoe, which is mounted at an
angle to the shaft axis, causing the pistons to reciprocate
in the piston block as the pump shaft is turned.
• The pistons pull back and draw in oil during 180° of their
rotation and push out and expel oil during the other 180°.
• The oil is fed to and from the system by semi-circular feed
grooves that are connected to inlet and outlet ports
located in the end cap
Axial Piston Pump
Pump Design and Operation: Bent Axis
• Bent axis has the cylinder block and pistons set at an
angle to the input shaft
• Geometry of the axis angle creates piston movement
• Considered a more rugged pump than inline
• high flow rates and maximum operating pressures

42
 Fixed displacement pump
angle is not adjustable

Bent axis pump

Characteristics of piston pump

• Piston pumps are the most expensive and the most efficient

• Have the highest pressure ratings as high as 10,000 psi.

• Least tolerant of contamination, making them best suited to clean

environments.
Radial Piston Pumps
• Radial piston pumps have the highest continuous operating pressure
capability of any of the pumps regularly used in hydraulic systems
• Models are available with operating pressure ratings in the 10,000 psi
range

45
Types of Radial Piston Pumps
• Two variations of radial piston pumps:
• Stationary-cylinder design uses springs to hold pistons
against a cam that rotates with the main shaft of the
pump. Also called as rotating cam radial piston pump.
• Rotating-cylinder design uses centrifugal force to hold
pistons against a reaction ring
• When the main shaft is rotated, each piston
reciprocates, causing fluid to move through the
pump

46
 Rotating Cylinder Radial Piston Pump

• Pistons radiate out from the shaft axis.

• The pistons and piston block are keyed to the drive shaft

• They rotate, while the housing and cam surface remain stationary.

• The piston block is mounted off-center, or eccentric, to the cam

surface.
 Rotating Cylinder Radial Piston Pump

• As the piston block is rotated, the pistons are kept in contact with the
cam ring by centrifugal force.
• The eccentricity between the piston block and the cam ring causes
the pistons to stroke, drawing in fluid and expelling it with each
rotation.
• The inlet and outlet ports are separated by the nonrotating pintle.
Rotating Cylinder Radial Piston
Pump
Rotating cam
Radial-Piston Pump.
• The rotating cam type has a cam that rotates with the
shaft while the piston block is stationary.
• The pistons ride the eccentrically shaped cam, which
causes them to stroke.
• The pistons are held in contact with the cam with
springs,
Additional Design Features
of Pumps
• Axial- and radial-piston pumps can include variable flow output
• Variable flow is created by varying the length of the piston stroke
• Inline design varies the angle of the swash plate
• Radial-piston design uses a moveable reaction ring

53
Additional Design Features
of Pumps
• Pressure compensation allows a pump to sense system pressure and
vary pumping chamber volume
• Provides only sufficient fluid to maintain the desired system operating
pressure
• When system resistance is low, the pump produces maximum flow

54
Additional Design Features
of Pumps
• When system load increases, the pump adjusts and
supplies only sufficient flow to maintain the desired
operating pressure
• When the actuator stalls, fluid flow only sufficient to
compensate for system leakage is produced
• Reduces the time the prime mover must spend
producing maximum flow against maximum system
pressure
• Reduces energy consumption

55
Additional Design Features
of Pumps
• Pressures that occur in a hydraulic system exert force on all of the
internal surfaces of pumps and other components
• Pressure differences within a pump can cause uneven loads on bearings
• Pressure balancing delivers pressurized fluid to critical locations to counteract
these forces
• Helps reduce wear and improve sealing between components

56
57
58
Pump Performance Curve

Pressure
Pump Cavitation
• Cavitation is the formation of oil vapour bubbles due to a very low pressure (high vacuum) on the inside of the
pump.
• The low pressure also causes air, which is dissolved in the oil to come out of the solution and form bubbles.
• These air and oil vapour bubbles collapse when they reach the outlet side of the pump, which is under a high
pressure.
• The collapsing of these vapour bubbles causes extremely high localized pressure and fluid velocity.
• These pressures are so high that they cause pitting of metal and consequently decrease the life and efficiency of
the pump.
Cavitation is caused by the following factors: Following are the rules to control cavitation:
1. Undersized plumbing. 1. Keep suction line velocities below 1.2 m/s.
2. Clogged lines or suction filters. 2. Keep the pump inlet lines as short as possible.
3. High fluid viscosity. 3. Minimize the number of fittings in the inlet line.
4. Too much elevation head between the 4. Mount the pump as close as possible to the reservoir.
reservoir and the pump inlet. 5. Use low-pressure drop inlet filters.
6. Use proper oil as recommended by the pump manufacturer.
Pump Selection
The main parameters affecting the selection of a particular type of pump are as follows:
1. Maximum operating pressure.
2. Maximum delivery.
3. Type of control.
4. Pump drive speed.
5. Type of fluid.
6. Pump contamination tolerance.
7. Pump noise.
8. Size and weight of a pump.
9. Pump efficiency.
10. Cost.
11. Availability and interchangeability.
12. Maintenance and spares.
Operating pressure and size ranges for hydraulic pump types
Problem 1:
A pump has a displacement volume of 120 cm3. It delivers 0.0015 m3/s at 1440 RPM and 60 bar.
If the prime mover input torque is 130 Nm. What is the overall efficiency of the pump? What is
the theoretical torque required to operate the pump. The pump is driven by an electric motor
having an overall efficiency of 88%. The hydraulic system operates 12 h/d for 250 days per year.
The cost of electricity is Rs 8 per kWh. Determine the yearly cost of electricity to operate the
hydraulic system. The amount of the yearly cost of electricity that is due to the inefficiencies of
the electric motor and pump.

Total number of working hours available =3000h

Volumetric displacement in m3/rev is

Theoretical discharge can be calculated as

volumetric efficiency as
Mechanical efficiency

overall efficiency

theoretical torque

Pump input power (kW) is given by

Electrical input power

Yearly cost = Power rate X Time per year X Unit cost of electricity
The total loss equals kW loss due to electric motor plus the kW loss due to pump. Thus, we have

Yearly cost due to inefficiency

we conclude that 59.2% of the total cost of electricity is due to inefficiency of the electric motor and pump.
This also means that only 49.8% of the electrical power entering the electric motor is transferred into hydraulic
power at the pump outlet port.
Problem 2:

Cylinder piston diameter 0.203 m

Cylinder rod diameter 0.102 m
Extending speed of cylinder 0.0762 m/s
External load on a cylinder 178000 N
Pump volumetric efficiency 92%
Pump mechanical efficiency 90%
Pump speed 1800 RPM
Pump inlet pressure −27600 Pa

(i)The total pressure drop in the line from the pump discharge port to the blank end of the cylinder is 517000 Pa.
(ii) The total pressure drop in the return line from the rod end of the cylinder = 345000 Pa.
Determine the
(a) Volumetric displacement of the pump.
(b) Input power required to drive the pump.
(c) Input torque required to drive the pump.
(d) Percentage of pump input power delivered to the load.
Volumetric displacement of pump.

Input power required to drive the pump

Input torque required to drive the pump

So torque required to drive pump is T = 100 Nm.

Power delivered to load is
HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:

1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).
Linear actuator:

Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

• Single-acting cylinders.
• Double-acting cylinders.
• Telescopic cylinders.
• Tandem cylinders.
Rotary Motors:
• Gear type
• Vane type
• Piston type
• Axial type
• Radial type
Single acting cylinder
A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in figure. It consists of a piston Inside a cylindrical
housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate. At the opposite end, there is a port for
the entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting cylinders produce force in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on the
piston. (Single-acting cylinders can exert a force in the extending direction only.) The return of the piston is not done
hydraulically. In single-acting cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity or by a spring.

According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders are classified as follows:

Gravity-return single-acting cylinder.
Spring-return single-acting cylinder.
 Gravity cylinder
cylinder lifts the
cylinder extends to weight by retracting
lift a weight against
the force of gravity by
applying oil pressure
at the piston end

Push type Pull type

Spring return single acting cylinder

Due to inherent mechanical problems associated with spring, single acting cylinders with spring return are not used in
application where larger stroke length is required
Double-Acting Cylinder
There are two types of double-acting cylinders:
Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.
Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.

• Double acting cylinders

are operated by oil
pressure applied to the
cylinder in both sides.
• For a given pressure
single rod end cylinders
exert greater force when
extending than when
retracting.

• When it is required equal

force in both directions,
the double rod end
cylinder is used.
Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.
Telescopic cylinders.

• It consists of nested tubular segments called sleeves.

• These sleeves work together and provide a longer working stroke or
extension than possible with a standard single acting cylinder.
• The maximum force that can be exerted depends on the diameter of
the smallest sleeve of the cylinder

Truck dump bodies

Fork lift trucks
Hydraulic cranes
Tandem cylinders.
• Two cylinders are connected in series
• Higher force for a given pressure and cylinder bore

Through-Rod Cylinders
• similar in construction to the standard double-acting cylinders
• cylinder rod extending through both cylinder end caps
• piston rods with different diameters at each end of the cylinder
Application:
• same speed is required in both the directions
• both ends of the rod can be utilized to do work
• non-working end is used to indicate or signal the position of the load
• rod is fixed at both the ends and the cylinder body carrying the load moves on the rod
Disadvantages: correct alignment and concentricity of cylinder bore, piston, end caps and rods.
Displacement Cylinders
Rod is displaced from inside a tube by pumping hydraulic fluid into the tube
Volume of the rod leaving the tube is equal to the volume of fluid entering the tube

The rod of the displacement cylinder is guided by bearings in

the nose or neck of the cylinder body. A collar on the end of the
rod prevents it from being ejected and limits the stroke of the
cylinder. Elastomer seals in the neck prevent any leakage of
fluid along the outside of the rod. This design is a single-acting
“push” or extension cylinder, which has to be retracted by
gravity, a spring or some external force. The bore of the cylinder
body does not require machining other than that for the neck
bearing and the inlet port; the manufacturing cost is, therefore,
low when compared with other types or hydraulic cylinders.

Maximum thrust = Pressure × Rod area

Cylinder Force, Velocity and Power
Problem 3:
A displacement-type cylinder has a rod of 65 mm diameter and is powered by a hand pump with a displacement of 5 mL per
double stroke. The maximum operating pressure of the system is to be limited to 350 bar. (a) Draw a suitable circuit diagram
showing the cylinder, pump and any additional valves required. (b) Calculate the number of double pumping strokes needed
to extend the cylinder rod by 50 mm. (c) Calculate the maximum load that could be raised using this system.
Rod volume displaced = Fluid volume entering

S=33.17 double strokes

Maximum thrust = Pressure × Rod area

=116.080 kN
Problem 4:
A three-stage telescopic cylinder is used to tilt the body of a lorry . When the
lorry is fully laden, the cylinder has to exert a force equivalent to 4000 kg at all
points in its stroke. The outside diameters of the tubes forming the three stages
are 60, 80 and 100 mm. If the pump powering the cylinder delivers 10 LPM,
calculate the extend speed and pressure required for each stage of the cylinder
when tilting a fully laden lorry.

First-stage speed = 1.27m/min

First-stage pressure = 50 bar
Second-stage speed = 1.99m/min
Second stage pressure = 78.1 bar
Third stage speed = 3.54 m/min
Third stage pressure= 139 bar
Problem 5:
A pump supplies oil at 0.0016 m3/s to a 40 mm diameter double-acting
hydraulic cylinder. If the load is 5000 N (extending and retracting) and
the rod diameter is 20 mm, find the
(a) Hydraulic pressure during the extending stroke. Ans=3978.8 kPa
(b) Piston velocity during the extending stroke. Ans= 1.273m/s
(c) Cylinder kW power during the extending stroke. Ans= 6.366 kW
(d) Hydraulic pressure during the retracting stroke, Ans= 5305.16 kPa
(e) Piston velocity during the retracting stroke. Ans= 1.697 m/s
(f ) Cylinder kW power during the retracting stroke. Ans= 8.488 kW
Problem 6:
A hydraulic cylinder has a bore of 200 mm and a piston rod diameter of 140 mm. For an extend
speed of 5 m/min, calculate
(a) The supply flow rate. =0.00262 m3/s
(b) The flow rate from the annulus side on extend. =0.0013 m3/s
(c) The retract speed using QE. = 0.164 m/s or 9.8 m/min
(d) The flow rate from the full bore end on retract. = 0.00515 m3/s

Also, if the maximum pressure applied to the cylinder is 100 bar, calculate the
(e) dynamic extend thrust and the (= 283 kN )
(f) dynamic retract thrust assuming that dynamic thrust = 0.9 static thrust. (144 kN )
Various Methods of Applying Linear Motion

Vertical cylinder
First-Class Lever System • fixed-hinge point is located in between the cylinder and the
loading point.
Second-Class Lever System

loading point is in between the cylinder and the hinge point

Third-Class Lever System

cylinder rod pin lies between the load

road pin and the fixed-hinge pin of the
lever.
Cylinder Cushions

For the prevention of shock due to stopping loads at the end of the piston stroke, cushion devices are used. Cushions may be
applied at either end or both ends. They operate on the principle that as the cylinder piston approaches the end of stroke, an
exhaust fluid is forced to go through an adjustable needle valve that is set to control the escaping fluid at a given rate. This allows
the deceleration characteristics to be adjusted for different loads. When the cylinder piston is actuated, the fluid enters the
cylinder port and flows through the little check valve so that the entire piston area can be utilized to produce force and motion.
Cushioning Pressure
During deceleration, extremely high pressure may develop
within a cylinder cushion. The action of the cushioning device is
to set up a back-pressure to decelerate the load.

Ideally, the back-pressure is constant over the entire cushioning length to

give a progressive load deceleration. In practice, cushion pressure is the
highest at the moment when the piston rod enters the cushion. Some
manufacturers have improved the performance of their cushioning
devices by using a tapered or a stepped cushion spear. Wherever high
inertia loads are encountered, the cylinder internal cushions may be
inadequate but it is possible for the load to be retarded by switching in
external flow controls. Deceleration can then take place over a greater
part of the actuator stroke.
Cylinder Mountings

• Type of force- tensile or compressive

• bucking load must be avoided
• The ratio of rod length to diameter should not exceed 6:1 to prevent bucking
• Alignment of the rod with the resistive load

The various kinds of mountings normally used in industries are as follows

1. Foot mounting: It should be designed to give a limited amount of movement on one foot only to allow for thermal or
load expansion. That is, the cylinder should be positively located or dowelled at one end only.

2. Rod-end flange or front flange mounting: During the extend stroke, pressure in the hydraulic fluid acts on the cylinder-
end cap, the force set up being transmitted to the front mounting flange through the cylinder body.
3. Rear flange, back flange or head-end flange mounting: No stress is present in the cylinder owing to load on the
extend stroke; only hoop stress is present. The load acts through the fluid onto the rear flange.

4. Trunnion mounting: It allows angular movement. It is designed to take shear load only. Bearing should be as close to
the cylinder body as possible.

5. Eye or clevis mounting: There is a tendency for the cylinder to jack knife under load. Side loading of bearing must be
carefully considered.
Piston Rod Buckling

Euler’s column theory is used to calculate a suitable piston rod diameter to withstand buckling.

The maximum safe working thrust or load F on the piston rod is given by

(b) (d)
Relationship between the piston rod, free buckling length and method of fixing. (a) Rear pivot and center trunnion mounted,
guided pivoted. (b) One end rigidly fixed, free load.(c) One end rigidly fixed, guided load. (d) One end rigidly fixed, pivoted
and guided load
Hydraulic fluid Reservoir – Function…
It stores the fluid as it returns from the hydraulic system, and acts as a buffer for
fluid fluctuations resulting from unequal flow displacement in the actuators.

It dissipates fluid heat generated by power losses in the actuators and the control
valves.

It allows un-dispersed air (foam or bubbles) to separate out of the hydraulic fluid.

It permits fluid contaminants to sink, and settle on the bottom of the reservoir
out of the fluid
Reservoir construction
• The reservoir is constructed of welded steel plate, with
legs to raise the tank above ground level.
• This permits cooling by air circulation around all the
walls and the bottom of the tank, to give optimum
heat transfer.
• For stationary applications, the reservoir is usually also
designed to serve as a mounting platform for the
pump, the motor, and related pressure and directional
control valves*.
• Has three lines: the pump inlet (suction line), the

return line, and the drain line.

• Inlet line has a strainer to filter out contaminants.

• The return and drain lines are for flow returning from the system back to
the reservoir.

• The return line is the main return path, while the drain line is only for
external drain lines from pumps, valves, and motors.

• The return line typically has a filter, while the drain line does not because
drain lines must have as little resistance as possible to keep the drain
cavities at low pressure
• The baffle plate prevents the fluid from traveling directly from
the return line to the pump inlet. It forces the fluid to dwell in
the reservoir.
• It allows time for heat to be dissipated through the reservoir
walls.
• Forcing the fluid to travel a circuitous path also promotes heat
exchange by bringing it into contact with more surfaces.
• The dwell time also allows time for entrained air to escape and
for contaminants to settle to the bottom of the tank.
• The access plates provide access to the reservoir for cleaning
and component replacement.
• The filler/breather cap allows the reservoir to be refilled with
oil and also has an air vent, which allows the entrained air to
escape.
• The breather also prevents pressure or vacuum from building
in the reservoir as the oil level goes up and down.
• The breather has a filter element that prevents atmospheric
contamination from entering the reservoir.
• A reservoir typically has a fluid level indicator and a thermometer.

• Reservoirs may also have magnetic plugs at the bottom of the tank to
attract and hold iron and steel contamination particles.
• The bottom of this reservoir is sloped or dished to drain to the
drain plug.

• Large cleanout plates or lids are fitted on the side of the tank to
permit access for cleaning and maintenance.

• Some smaller reservoirs are made of aluminium castings with

cooling fins.

• Such reservoirs are marketed as complete power units

including the prime mover, the pump and a system relief valve.
 Accumulator
• A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an
incompressible fluid held under pressure by an external source against some
dynamic force. This dynamic force can come from different sources. The stored
potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source of fluid power
capable of doing useful work.
• There are three basic types of accumulators:
• Weight-loaded or gravity accumulator
• Spring-loaded accumulator
• Gas-loaded accumulator
Weight-loaded or gravity accumulator
It is a vertically mounted cylinder with a
large weight. When the hydraulic fluid is
pumped into it, the weight is raised. The
weight applies a force on the piston that
generates a pressure on the fluid side of
piston. The advantage of this type of
accumulator over other types is that it
applies a constant pressure on the fluid
throughout its range of motion. The main
disadvantage is its extremely large size
and heavy weight. This makes it unsuitable
for mobile application.
Spring-loaded accumulator
A spring-loaded accumulator stores energy in the
form of a compressed spring. A hydraulic fluid is
pumped into the accumulator, causing the piston
to move up and compress the spring as shown in
Fig. The compressed spring then applies a force on
the piston that exerts a pressure on the hydraulic
fluid. This type of accumulator delivers only a
small volume of oil at relatively low pressure.
Furthermore, the pressure exerted on the oil is not
constant as in the dead-weight-type accumulator.
As the springs are compressed, the accumulator
pressure reaches its peak, and as the springs
approach their free lengths, the accumulator
pressure drops to a minimum.
 Gas-loaded accumulator A gas-loaded accumulator is popularly
used in industries. Here the force is
applied to the oil using compressed air. A
gas accumulator can be very large and is
often used with water or high water-based
fluids using air as a gas charge. Typical
application is on water turbines to absorb
pressure surges owing to valve closure and
on ram pumps to smooth out the delivery
flow. The exact shape of the accumulator
characteristic curve depends on pressure–
• Non-separator-type accumulator: Here the oil and gas
are not separated. Hence, they are always placed
volume relations:
vertically.
• Separator-type accumulator: Here the oil and gas are
separated by an element.
Piston-type accumulator
It consists of a cylinder with a freely floating piston with
proper seals. Its operation begins by charging the gas
chamber with a gas (nitrogen) under a pre-determined
pressure. This causes the free sliding piston to move down.
Once the accumulator is pre-charged, a hydraulic fluid can be
pumped into the hydraulic fluid port. As the fluid enters the
accumulator, it causes the piston to slide up, thereby
compressing the gas that increases its pressure and this
pressure is then applied to the hydraulic fluid through the
piston. Because the piston is free sliding, the pressure on the
gas and that on the hydraulic fluid are always equal.
Diaphragm accumulator:
In this type, the hydraulic fluid and nitrogen gas
are separated by a synthetic rubber diaphragm.
The advantage of a diaphragm accumulator
over a piston accumulator is that it has no
sliding surface that requires lubrication and can
therefore be used with fluids having poor
lubricating qualities. It is less sensitive to
contamination due to lack of any close-fitting
components.
Bladder-type accumulator
It functions in the same way as the other two accumulators.
Here the gas and the hydraulic fluid are separated by a
synthetic rubber bladder. The bladder is filled with nitrogen
until the designed pre-charge pressure is achieved. The
hydraulic fluid is then pumped into the accumulator,
thereby compressing the gas and increasing the pressure in
the accumulator. The port cover is a small piece of metal
that protects the bladder from damage as it expands and
contacts the fluid port.
Accumulator as an auxiliary power source:
Accumulator as a leakage compensator
An accumulator can be used as a
compensator for internal and external
leakage during an extended period in
which the system is pressurized but not in
operation. The pump charges the
accumulator and the system until the
maximum pressure sets the pressure
switch ON.
Accumulator as an emergency power source
In some hydraulic systems, safety dictates that a cylinder be
retracted even though the normal supply of oil pressure is lost
due to a pump or electrical power failures.
Accumulator as a hydraulic shock absorber:
Accumulator as a thermal expansion
compensator: