R..I< &.

TP~
'"

VI = -- Q, = -- 18 = 3 m/s
bx )'1 3x 2
2
Q2 = 3" Q1
Q2 = -2 x 18 = 12 m 3 /s
3
Q2 = (b2 x Y2) V2 = b2 x V2Y2

V2)/2 = -Q2 = -12 = 4 m 2 /s per m

b2 3
1"/1 = V~:;2+ C )'2 - Y,) ... Cr'1':nui';' eiuation
3x2=4+C(Y2-2)
2
C=--
Y2 - 2
Substituting the values in expression (i) we have

(Y2 2 - 2 2 ) = --2X2( 3 + -- 2) (3 - V2)

9·81 Y2 - 2

(yi - 4) = 0·41 (3 + -, _2_) (3 - ~.)

h-2 Y2

Solving by trial and error')'2 = 2·8 m and V2 = ~ = 1· 428. m/s

2·8
Height of the surge = Y2 - Y1= 2·8 - 2 = 0.8 m (Ans.)
22,
Velocity of the upstream surge, C = -- = --- = 2·5 m/s (Ans.)
, Y2 - 2 2·8 - 2
16.1O. Gradually Varied Flow
Gradually varied flow (G.VF.) is one in which the depth changes gradually over a long distance.
In a rapidly varied flow, the change in depth takes place in a short distance.
I

Gradually varied flow may be caused due to one or more of the following factors:
I. The change in the shape and size of the channel cross-section,
2. The change in slope of the channel;
3. The presence of obstruction (e.g., weir etc.), and
4. The change in frictional forces at the boundaries.
16.10.1. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow
The following assumptions are made for analysing gradually varied flow:
1. The channel is a prismatic (a channel with constant section and alignment).
2. The bed slope is small.
3. The flow is steady and hence discharge is constant.
926 I Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines
I
4. The pressure distribution over the channel section is hydrostatic i.l!. streamlines are practically
straight and parallel.
5. The energy correction factor (a) is unity.
6. The roughness co-efficient is constant for the leng\h of the channel and it does not depend
on the depth of flow.. I . , .

7. The Chezy and Mannlllg c0rrelatlons are equally apphcabletograduaJly vaned flow for
detennining the slope of energy line:
Consider a rectangular channel having gradually varied flow (Fig. 16,33), (he depth of flow
gradually decreasing in the direction of flow.
Let, b = Width of the channel,
Q = Discharge through the channel,
z = Height of bot 10m of ~hannel above datum,
y = Depth of flow,
V = Mean velocity or flow,
I
Sb = = slope of the channel bed, and
tan i :::)
Se = tan):::) = slope of energy line.
According to Bernoulli's equation, the energy equation at any section is given by,
V2
E = z + -' + -2g
1)
...(1')

I
Fig. 16.33. Gradually varied flow in a channel.
Taking the bottom of the channel on the X-axis and the vertically upwards direction measured
. I . ,
from the channel bottom, as the Y-axis, differentiation of eqn. (i), with respect to x yields
2
dE dz dy d (V )
dx = dx + dx + dx 2g

Now i. (~) =i.[(Qj A)2] = i. [(Qj b.y)2]

dx 2g dx 2g dx ,2g,

.,' Q, band Y]
[ ar.e constant
 Substituting the value of !!- (~). in expression (ii), we get
dx .2g

dE dz dy V2 dy
-=-+----
dx dx dx gy dx

ifE = dz + l/); (1 _ ~ \)
dx dx dx gy

dE"
-d . = Slope of energy line = - S
X e

dz
and, -d = Slope of bed of the channel =- Sb
x '
- Ve signs with Se and Sb indicate that the values of E and z decrease with the increase of x,

dE dz !

Substituting the values of dx and dx in expression (iii), we get,

dy _ (Sb - Se)
dx -[I-'(Fr)2J ...(1643) (: Jgy = Fr J -.
dy, i '

dx represents the variation of depth along the bottom of the channel and is also called the slope

of the free water surface.

(i) When dy = 0 :y is constant (or depth of water above the bottom of channel is constant); it
dx ,
means that free water surface is parallel to the chan:nel bed.

(ii) When : > 0 (or: is + ve) : It indicates tho! the depth oj woter increoses in the

direction offlow, the profile ofwater so obtained is called 'back water curve'.

(iii) When dy < 0 or dy is - ve: It indicates that ;he depth of water decreases in the direction
dx dx ,
of now. The profile of water so obtained is known as 'drop down curve'.
 16.10.2. Back Water Curve and Afflux
In an open channel when the flow isluniform, the flow has constant depth at all the sections and
the surface of the free water iies parallel to bed of the channel. But when an obstruction like a dam, weir
etc. comes across the channel width the rater level rises and it has maximum depth from the bed at
some section (Fig. 16'34). Ify\ is the deBth of water at the point, where the water starts rising up and
Y2 is the maximum height of rising water trromthe bed, then this incre~se in 'depth (i.e. Y2 - Y I) is known
as 'afflux' and the curved surface of the liquid with its concavity upwards, is known as 'bac~_-.vater
curve'. '

r
Fig. ] 6J4. Back water curve and afflux.
Length of back water curve:
The length of back water curve is the distance along the bed of the channel between the section
. where water starts rising to the 'section qnd where water has maximum depth.
Consider a channel in which a back water curve is fonned as shown in Fig. 16·35. Let two sections
I-1 and 2-2 are so chosen that distance between them represents the length of backwater curve.

Let, y\ = Depth of flow at section 1-1,

VI = Velocity of flow at section 1-1,

Y2 = Depth offlow at section 2-2,

V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2,

Sb = Bed slope,
Se = Energy line slope, and
I = Length of back water curve.
 Applying Bernoulli's equation at the two sections with charmel bed at section 2-2 as the ditinn
for potential head, we have
VI2 VJ2
zl + YI + - = Y2 + --- + hf (': z) = 0)
2g 2g -
where, h = Loss of head due to friction = Se x I, and zi ='Sb x I
f
VJ2 V}
Sb x I + YI + - = Y2 + --- + Se x I
2g ,,2g

or, Sb x I - Se x I = (V})
Y2 + 2~ -
'( Yl + V;2)
2~

V2 VJ2)
where E2 = Y2 + _2_, E1 -= y,+ -'
( 2g 2g

I = E2 - E1
Sb - Se
where, E) and E2 represent the specific energies at the begirming and end of the backwatel' curve. The
value of Se (slope of energy line) is determined by Manning's formula or Chezy's formula corresponding
to flow conditions at mean/average depth of flow.
Example 16.36. /n a rectangular channel J 2 m wide anti 3·6 m 'deep water is flowing with a
velocity of J. 2 m/s. The bed slope of the channel is I in 4000. If flow of water through the channel is
regulated in such a way that energy line is having a slope OfOi0004 firM the rate of change ofdepth
o/water in the channel. '
Solution. Width of charmel, b = 12 in
Depth of the charmel, Y = 3·6 m
Velocity of flow, V = 1·2' m/s

Bed slope, Sb = -- 1 = 0·00025

4000
Slope of the energy Jjpe",Se = 0·00004
, d
Rate of change of depth of water, -l. :
dx
dy Sb - Se

d<~(I-~J
Substituting the values, we get,

dy = 0,00025 - 0·00004 = 0·00021 = 0.0002189 (Ans.)

dx (1- 1.2
2
J 0'·9592
9·81 x 3·6
Example 16.37./n a rectangular channel o/width 24 III and depth o/flow 6 m, the rate oIflow 0/
water is 86·4 ni3/s. If the bed slopeo/the channel is I in 4000 find the slope of the free water surface.
s
Take Chezy constant C 60. :=;

Solution. Width of the charmel, b = 24 m

Depth offlow,y = 6m
Rate offlow or discharge, Q = 86Am3/s
 Bed slope, Sb = -- 1 = 0·00025
4000
Chezy's constant, C == 60.
dy
Slope of the free wa ter surface, dx :

Discharge, Q==A x V==A x C JRSb

where, A == area offlow == bxy == 24 x 6 == 144 m2

'd' lUS = -A
H Yd rau IlCra = -- 144 = ----
144 4
= m
P b + 21'1 24 + 2 x 6
The slope of the energy line (Se) is detennined from Chezy's formula.

.. 86·4 = 144 x 60..j47S; = 17280 fS: [Art. 16'10, point 7]

or S = - •. -
86.4 )2 = 0·000025
e ( 171280

Now, dy = Sb..L Se = 01·00025 ~ O· 000025 = 0.000226

dx V2 0.62
1,-1- 1- ---
,gy 9·81x6

Q. I
86·4 )
( = --b x y = -:-
V
24 iX 6
= 0·6 m/s

Hence slope of the free water surface == 0.000226 (Ans.)

Example 16.38. A wide channef./aid to a slope of 1 in J 000 carries a discharge of 3·5 m3/s per
metre width at a depth of J'6 m. Find out the value of Chezy s constant C. Consider the flow to be
1

uniform.· I .
If the actual depth varies from 11-5 m at an upstream location to 1-7 m at a location 300 m
downstream or in other words the flow is gradually varied, what will be the value of Chezy S-
ea-efficient C. I [Roorkee University]

Solution. Bed slope of channel, Sb = _1_

1000
Discharge, q == 3·5 m3/sper metre width
Depth ofwater,y == 1·6 m
.
.. Veloclty offlow = -q = -3·5 ::::2 ·1875 m/s
y 1·6

A bx y
Hydraulic radius, R = - = --
P b + 2y
For a wide channel, the width b of the stream is large in comparison with depth of flow y. Therefore
bxy
R=--=y=I·6m
b

V = CJRSb
 2 ·1875 = C Jl. 6 xl. = 0·04 C
1000

C = 2·1875 = 54.68 (ADs.)

0·04
(ii) Gradually varied now:
dy 1· 7 - 1· 5
Slope of the free water surface, -dl = --30-0- = 0·000667
Average flow depth, y ~ YI + Y2 = 1·7 + 1· 5 = 1.6 m
. 2 2

Velocity at average flow depth, V = i = 3.5 = 2 ·1875 m

Y 1·6
Hydraulic radius, R :: y = 1·6 m
The rate of change of depth is given by,
dy _ Sb - Se
dl - V2
1--
gy

0.000667 = 0·001 - Se = 0·001 - Se

1 _ 2.18752 0·695
9·81 x 1·6
Se = 0·001 - 0·000667 x 0·695 = 0·000536 I

V = C ~ RSe ... Chezy's fonnula

2·1875 = C ~1.6 x 0·000536 = 0·0293 C

C = 2 ·1875 7" 74.65 (Ans.)

0·0293
Example 16.39. The normal depth off1Jw of water. in a rectangularlchannel J.5 m wide, is one
metre. The bed slope of the channel is 0·0006 and Manning's roughness co-efficient N 0·0 J 2. Find
the critical depth.
At a certain section of the same channel the depth is 0·92 m while at a second section the depth
is 0·86 m. Find the distance between the two sections. Also ftnd whether the section is located
downstream or upstream with respect to theftrst section. [UPSC Exams.]
Solution. Width of the channel, b = 1·5 m
Normal depth ofwater'Yn = 1 m
:. Area of flow, A = b x Yn = 1·5 x 1 = 1·5 m2
Perimeter , P = b + 2y n = 1.5 + 2 x 1 = 3- 5 m

A 1· 5
1· d'IUS, R=-=-=0·4286m
:. H y dr aUlcra
P 3·5
Manning's co-efficient N = 0·0) 2
Bed slope, Sb = 0·0006
Critical depth:
DISC
. h
arge, Q = rr;c;-
A x V = A xC VRSb = A x -
1
R
1/6
VRSb
rr;c;- = A x - 1 2 13
R'
rc;-
VSb
. N N
 (where, Chezy's constant, C = 1R l/6
)
N
or, Q = 1· 5 x _1_ x (0·4286)2/3 X (0.0006)1/2 = 1· 74 m3/s
0·012
. .. Q 1· 74 3
DIscharge per umt wIdth q = - = - = 1·16 m /s per m
, ·'b
. 1· 5
2
The critical depth, YI' = (iJ1/3 1
= 1'16 ,',]1/3 = 0·516 m (Ans.)
g , L 9·81
Specific energy at 0.92 m depth:
v,2
E1 = 0·92 +_1
2g

where, "J!) = Q = 1·74 = 1·26 m/s

byO·92 1·5x')·92

1· 262
.. E1 = 0·92 + --- = 1· 0 m
2x9·81
Specific energy at 0.86 m depth:
I 2
V2
E2 = 0·86 +-
2g
Q 1·74
1.
where, V2 = -- = ---- = 1· 35 m/s
b x 0·86 1·.5 x 0·86

. 1· 352
£2 = 0·86 + ---= 0·953 m
2 x 9·81
Slope of energy line CSe) at the mean section:

= Yl + Y2' = 0·92 + 0·86 = l .89 m

Y
2 . 2
1 R4/3
Q = A x N,R2/3 (Se)1/2 or Q2 = A2 x -- S '
N2 e
2 2
S = Q2N2: = .1.74 x 0.012 , =8.11~1O-4=0.000811
e A2R4/3 (l.5xO.89)2x(0.407)4/3 " ..

.,' R =.i = 1·5 x 0·89 = 0.407J

( P I· 5 + 2 x 0·89
Distance between the two sections,

III = £'2 - E1 = 0·953 -1·0 _= 222.75 m (Ans:)

S b - S eO· 0006 ...:.O· 000811

dy Sb - S e
Slope of water surface, - = 2
dx V
I.!..-
gy
,
Average depth of flow = 0'· 89 m (calculated above)
 dy = 0·0006 - 0·000811 =_ 2.616 x 10- 4
dx 1.32
1----
9·81 x 0·89

Since dy is -ve, therefore, the second section is downstream (ADS.)

~ - -

Example 16.40. (Length of backwater curve). Draw the spfcific energy diagram for various
constant discharges and show the alternate and critical depths. , _
. ., . "
A weir is installed across a rectangular open channel thereby raising the flow depth from 1-5 m
in a normal flow to 2·5 m at the weir. The width of the channel is 10 m and it (s laid to a slope-of 1 in
10000. Find an approximate length of the backwater curve considering the average velocity, average
depth and average slope midway between the two sections. Take the value of Manning s rugosity co-
efficient equal to 0·02. [Delhi University]
Soll.lion. Upstream seCI.un 1-1:
Width of the channel, bl = 10 m
Depth offlow, Yl == 1·5 m
:. Area of flow, Al == bl x YI == lOx 1·5 == 15 m2
Wetted perimeter, PI == bl + 2YI == 10+ 2 x 1·5 == 13 m

Hydraulic radius, R1 = .1= ~ = 1·154 m

~ 13

C, = ~ (R)1/6 = _1_ x (1·154)1/6 = 51.2

N 0·02
(where, N==0·02 ... Given)
1 .
Vi = C1 JRSb = 51·2 1·154 x -- = 0·55 m/s
10000

(where slope of the channel bed, Sb = _1_ ...Given)

10000
- v,2 0.552
Specific energy, E) = y) +_1_ = 1·5 + --- = 1· 515 m
2g 2x9:81
Downstream section 2-2:
Width of the channel, b2 == bl == 10 m
Depth of flow, Y2 = 2·5 m
Area of flow, A2 == b2 x Y2 == 10 x 2·5 == 25 m2
Wetted perimeter, P2 = b2 + 2Y2 == 10+ 2 x 2·5 = 15 m
A 25
:. Hydraulic radius, R2 = - 2 = - = 1·667 m
P2 15
Also, A I VI == A2 V2 ... Continuity equation

V
2
= A1YJ = 15 x 0·55 = 0.33 m/s
A2 25
 Specific energy, £2
v = 2·5
= Y2 + _2_
2
0.332
+ --- = 2·505 m
I 2g 2 x 9·81
The value of Se (slope of energ'y line) is calculated by Chezy's formula corresponding to flow
conditions at the average depth offlow.
VI + y, 1·5 + 2·5 -
Average depth of flow, Y =' 2 - = --2-- = 2m

Area of flow, A = b x y = 10 x 2 = 20 m2 (.,' bl = b2 = b = 10 m)

Wetted perimeter, P = b + 2y = 10 + 2 x 2 = 14 m
A 20
R =- = - = 1·428 m
P 14
AV=AI~l
AI V; _ 15 . 0·55 - 0 .,,! 25 mI 5
·V --------
A 20

Chezy's constant, C = ..!.. (R)I/6 = _1_ x (1· 428)1/6 = 53.06

N I 0·02

Velocity V = C ~R x Se

or, 0·4125 = 53.06Jl.428 x Se = 63.4.jS;

or, S = (0.4125J2 = 0.0000423
e . 63.4 .
Length of back water curve,

I = £-E
2 I I where Sb is the slope of channel bed
Sb - Se - '

12.505 -' 1· 515

= ------ = 17157 m or 17.157 km(A.lS.)
0·0001 - 0·0000423
Example 16.41. (Back water curve). A river 45 m wide has a normal depth offlowof3 m and an
average bed slope of 1in 10000. A weir is built across the river raising the water surface level at the
weir site to 5 m above the boltom of the river. Assuming that the back water cUflle is an arc of circle,
calculate the approximate length of the backwater cUflle. Consider that the river is prismatic. Take
the value ofN in Manning s formula as 0·025. [UPSC Exams.]
Solution. Width of the bed, b = 45 m
Depth offlow (normal),y" = 3 m

Average bed slope, Sb = _1 __1=0.0001

10000 '
Depth of flow at weir site,y = 5 m
Manning's co-efficient, N = 0·025
Afflux, h = y - Y" = 5 - 3 = 2 m
Length of back water curve, I:
Length of backwater curve, by circular arc method is given as
1= 2h
dy/ dx
 Flow in Open Channels

Area of flow, A = 45 x 3 = 135 m2

Perimeter, P = 45 + 2 x 3 = 51 m
A 135
R =- =- = 2·65 m.
P 51
213
Q = A x V = A x C ~ RSb = A x ~ RI16 ~ RSb = A x ~ R S~12
N N
(where, Chezy's constant, C = ~ x RlI6)·
N

Q = 135 x _1_ x (2.65)213 x (0.0001)112 = 103·4 m3/s

. 0·025 .

y = 5 m, V = _Q- = 103·4 = 0·46m1s

45 x 5 45 x 5
A 45 x 5
Hydraulic radius, R = - = --- = 4·09 m
P 45 + 2 x 5
Slope of water surface at the weir,
dy Sb - Se
dx = V2
1--
gy
where, Se is the slope of the total energy line at the weir, Vand yare the velocity and depth offlow
respectively at the weir.

2 2 2 2
= V N = 0.46 x 0.025 = 2.02 x 10-5 = 0.0000202
R4/3 (4.09)413
2 2
_V _ 0.46 = 0.0043
9·81x5

dy = 0·0001 - 0·0000202 ;; 0.00008

dx 1 - 0·0043

Substituting the value of : in expression (i), we have

2 x? . .
I = - = 50000 m or 50 Ian (Ans.)
0·00008
16.11. Measurement of Flow of Irregular Channels
I

The term "irregular channels" includes large rivers anq small streams. In case of a small
stream; it is possible to obtain the quantity of flow by fitting
.
a notch or weir across the stream;
, the
discharge may then be calc.ulated by measuring th~ head over the notch. However, this method
cannot be employed for large rivers on account of the expenseI· and the obstruction which may be
caused to navigation.
, In order to obtain the discharge through a large ri'ver (or irregular channel),
"
l

\,

, we require: (i) Area. of flow and (ii) Mean velocity of flow.' By knowing this data discharge is
calculated as follows: