T HE U NIVERSITY OF S YDNEY

S CHOOL OF M ATHEMATICS AND S TATISTICS

Solutions to Tutorial 5
MATH1001: Differential Calculus Summer School, 2008
Web Page: http://www.maths.usyd.edu.au/u/UG/SS/SS1001/

Preparatory questions
1. Use the limit laws to evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim (2x3 − 3x + 1)
x→3
Solution: In the four parts of this exercise, the results can be found by just substituting the
given values of x or (x, y) into the given function. They are designed to illustrate the limit
laws, namely, that the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits, and similarly for differences,
products and quotients, except that division by zero is not allowed.

lim (2x3 − 3x + 1) = lim (2x3 ) + lim (−3x) + lim (1)

x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3

3

= 2 limx→3 x − 3 limx→3 x + 1 (optional step)
3
= 2·3 −3·3+1
= 54 − 9 + 1
= 46.

1+x
(b) lim
x→2 x − 3
Solution: Because the denominator is nonzero when x = 2, we can take the quotient of
limits:
1 + x limx→2 (1 + x)
lim =
x→2 x − 3 limx→2 (x − 3)
1+2
=
2−3
= −3.

x2 − 9
(c) lim
x→−1 x − 3
Solution: Because the denominator is nonzero when x = −1, we can write
x2 − 9 limx→−1 (x2 − 9) 1−9 −8
lim = = = = 2.
x→−1 x−3 limx→−1 (x − 3) −1 − 3 −4

Alternatively, because x2 − 9 = (x − 3)(x + 3), we can write

(
x2 − 9 x + 3 when x 6= 3
=
x−3 not defined when x = 3.

Here, x is approaching −1, which is away from 3. Nevertheless, for any c ∈ R, including
c = 3, we have
x2 − 9
lim = lim (x + 3) = c + 3.
x→c x − 3 x→c

The limit is 2 in the particular case c = −1.

Copyright
c 2008 The University of Sydney 1
 (d) lim (3x2 − xy + y)
(x,y)→(2,1)

Solution: This two-dimensional limit exists and is given by

lim (3x2 − xy + y)
(x,y)→(2,1)

= lim (3x2 ) + lim (−xy) + lim (y)

(x,y)→(2,1) (x,y)→(2,1) (x,y)→(2,1)

= 3 · 22 − 2 · 1 + 1
= 12 − 2 + 1
= 11.

2. Find the following limits:

(a) lim ex
x→−∞
Solution: The function ex decays rapidly to zero as x → −∞. Hence, lim ex = 0.
x→−∞
1
(b) lim
x→0 x2
Solution: The function 1/x2 approaches +∞ as x → 0 from both sides. Hence, the limit
exists and is infinite:
1
lim 2 = +∞.
x→0 x

Questions to do in class
3. Decide whether the following limits exist, and find them when they do exist. (You may find it
helpful to factorise the expressions in the numerators and denominators where possible.)
x2 − 6x + 8
(a) lim 2
x→2 x − 5x + 6
Solution: The numerator and denominator are both zero when x = 2, so are divisible by
x − 2. In fact x2 − 6x + 8 = (x − 2)(x − 4) and x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 2)(x − 3). Hence,

x2 − 6x + 8 x − 4
= , x 6= 2, 3,
x2 − 5x + 6 x − 3
and so
x2 − 6x + 8 x−4 2−4
lim 2
= lim = = 2.
x→2 x − 5x + 6 x→2 x − 3 2 − 3
x3 − 3x + 2
(b) lim
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1
Solution: The numerator and denominator are each divisible by x − 1, so

x3 − 3x + 2 x2 + x − 2
= , x 6= 1.
x2 − 2x + 1 x−1
Since x2 + x − 2 is also divisible by x − 1, we find that

x3 − 3x + 2
= x + 2, x 6= 1,
x2 − 2x + 1
and so
x3 − 3x + 2
lim = lim (x + 2) = 3.
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1 x→1

2
 x2 − 3x + 4
(c) lim
x→−1 x2 + 4x + 3
Solution: The denominator of the fraction (x2 − 3x + 4)/(x2 + 4x + 3) is zero when
x = −1, but the numerator is nonzero when x = −1. So we see straight away that the limit,

x2 − 3x + 4
lim
x→−1 x2 + 4x + 3
cannot be finite. In fact, this limit does not exist, but to see this requires a little thought.
Notice that
x2 − 3x + 4 x2 − 3x + 4
=
x2 + 4x + 3 (x + 3)(x + 1)
and that
x2 − 3x + 4
lim = 4.
x→−1 x+3
This indicates that near x = −1 the function (x2 − 3x + 4)/(x + 3) is “well-behaved” and
that the reason why the given limit does not exist is because the limit lim {1/(x + 1)}
x→−1
does not exist, which is easy to see from the graph of y = 1/(x + 1).

1
3 y=
x+1
2

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

The limit lim {1/(x + 1)} does not exist because when we approach x = −1 from the
x→−1
left the limit is −∞, whereas when we approach x = −1 from the right the limit is +∞.
Similarly, as we approach x = −1 from the left the function (x2 − 3x + 4)/(x2 + 4x + 3)
tends to −∞ and when we approach x = −1 from the right it tends to +∞. Thus the given
function has one-sided infinite limits, but does not have a two-sided limit as x → −1, either
finite or infinite.
The important point here is that the bad behaviour of the function is caused by the factor
1/(x + 1). In this example, we can actually isolate this bad behaviour completely by
expanding in partial fractions:

x2 − 3x + 4 4 11
2
= 1+ −
x + 4x + 3 x+1 x+3
(check!). We see that the limit of this function as x → −3 does not exist either, for the
same reason. The graph of the function y = (x2 − 3x + 4)/(x2 + 4x + 3) is as follows:

3
 10

x2 − 3x + 4
y=
x2 + 4x + 3

−10−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

−10

−20
The two vertical asymptotes occur at x = −3 and x = −1, as one expects from the discus-
sion above.

4. Find the following limits as x → ∞:

2x − 3
(a) lim
x→∞ 4x + 5
Solution: Divide numerator and denominator by x:

2x − 3 2 − (3/x) limx→∞ {2 − (3/x)} 2 − 0 2 1

lim = lim = = = = .
x→∞ 4x + 5 x→∞ 4 + (5/x) limx→∞ {4 + (5/x)} 4 + 0 4 2

5 + x2
(b) lim
x→∞ 3 + 27x − x3

Solution: Divide numerator and denominator by x3 (highest power in denominator):

5 + x2 (5/x3 ) + (1/x) 0+0

lim 3
= lim 3 2
= = 0.
x→∞ 3 + 27x − x x→∞ (3/x ) + (27/x ) − 1 0+0−1

5. Show that
2xy
lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2

is equal to 1 when (x, y) → (0, 0) along the line x = y. What happens when the limit is evaluated
along the line x = −y? Or along the x-axis (that is, along y = 0)? Does the limit exist? Why or
why not?
Solution: Computing this limit as (x, y) approaches (0, 0) along the line y = x we find that

2xy 2x2
lim = lim = 1.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2 x→0 2x2

Similarly, when (x, y) approaches (0, 0) along the line y = −x we have

2xy −2x2
lim = lim = −1.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2 x→0 2x2

4
 If we take the limit along the x-axis (y = 0) we have
2xy 0
lim = lim = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2 x→0 x2

As we get different values for this limit when we let (x, y) approach (0, 0) from different directions
we see that the limit lim 2xy/(x2 + y2 ) does not exist.
(x,y)→(0,0)

Remarks. This example can be examined from a different point of view. Write the given function
in polar coordinates (r, θ ), where x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ . We find

2xy 2r2 cos θ sin θ

= = 2 cos θ sin θ = sin 2θ .
x2 + y2 r2
This result depends on θ only. So the function is constant along rays terminating at the origin
(but excluding the origin), and the value of the constant depends on which ray is chosen. These
rays are the level curves of the function. More precisely, the level curve at height z, −1 < z < 1,
consists of four rays (two full straight lines minus the origin), and the level curves at the maximum
and minimum heights z = 1 and z = −1 consist of two rays (one full straight line minus the origin)
each. The important point here is that a function of two variables can never have a limit at a point
that is approached by two level curves at different heights.
Now consider a spiral path that approaches the origin while orbiting around it an infinite number
of times. The equiangular spiral r = e−θ is an example. On such a spiral, the function sin 2θ
oscillates between −1 and +1 and never reaches a limit. Another path along which the given
function 2xy/(x2 + y2 ) oscillates without reaching a limit is y = x sin(1/x), where x → 0 through
positive values. These paths illustrate the fact that the nonexistence of the limit of the given
function as (x, y) → (0, 0) can be proved with just a single path, although, of course, the proof
in this example is easier with two radial paths having different limits. (The method of polar
coordinates is revisited again in Question ??(c).)

6. Use the squeeze law to find the following limits:

1
(a) lim x4 cos
x→0 x
Solution: Since −1 ≤ cos(1/x) ≤ 1, we have

−x4 ≤ x4 cos(1/x) ≤ x4 ,

for all x 6= 0. Since lim x4 = 0, the squeeze law implies that lim x4 cos(1/x) exists and is
x→0 x→0
equal to zero.
 1
(b) lim sin x sin
x→0 x
 
Solution: Observe that if x 6= 0 then sin x sin(1/x) = | sin x| · | sin(1/x)| ≤ | sin x|. There-
fore,
− | sin x| ≤ sin x sin(1/x) ≤ | sin x|,
for all x 6= 0. (Note that we need the absolute value signs here because sin x is sometimes
positive and sometimes negative.) Since lim | sin x| = 0 the squeeze law implies that the
x→0
limit lim {sin x sin(1/x)} exists and equals zero.
x→0

(c) lim 3 + x ln |x| . (You may assume that | ln x| < x−1/2 for 0 < x < 1.)


x→0
Solution: Note that ln x is defined
p for all positive px. So ln |x| is defined
p for all nonzero x.
Since |x ln |x|| < |x| · |x|−1/2 = |x| , we see that − |x| < x ln |x| < |x| , for 0 < |x| < 1.

5
 p
Since lim |x| = 0, the squeeze law implies the important result that x ln |x| → 0 as x → 0.
x→0
(This is usually
expressed as a one-sided limit: lim+ x ln x = 0.) Adding 3, we find that
x→0
lim 3 + x ln |x| exists and equals 3.
x→0

Remark. It is not difficult to show that | ln x| < x−1/2 for 0 < x < 1. Consider the function
f (x) = ln x + x−1/2 . Its derivative is f ′ (x) = 1/x − 1/(2x3/2 ), which is negative for 0 <
x < 1/4 and positive for x > 1/4. So f (x) has an absolute minimum at x = 1/4 with
value f (1/4) = 2 − 2 ln 2 > 0. This shows that f (x) is positive for all x > 0. In particular,
f (x) = x−1/2 − | ln x| > 0 for 0 < x ≤ 1.

Questions for further practice

7. In the following examples, assume that lim f (x) = 3, lim g(x) = 4 and lim h(x) = 0. Use the
x→1 x→1 x→1
limit laws to decide whether these limits exist, and to find them when they do exist:
f (x)
(a) lim
x→1 g(x)

limx→1 f (x) 3
Solution: The limit exists and is = .
limx→1 g(x) 4
g(x)
(b) lim
x→1 h(x)

Solution: We cannot tell whether or not this limit exists from the information given in
the question. For example, if we consider the functions g(x) = 4, a constant function, and
h(x) = x − 1, then lim g(x) = 4 and lim h(x) = 0 and the limit,
x→1 x→1

g(x) 4
lim = lim ,
x→1 h(x) x→1 x − 1
does not exist. This example has one-sided infinite limits, but not a two-sided limit. How-
ever, if we let g(x) = 4 and h(x) = (x − 1)2 , then lim g(x) = 4 and lim h(x) = 0, but now
x→1 x→1
we have that
g(x) 4
lim = lim = +∞.
x→1 h(x) x→1 (x − 1)2

So this example has a two-sided infinite limit, and we can say that the limit exists. The
example g(x) = 4 and h(x) = (x − 1) sin{1/(x − 1)} does not even have one-sided limits.
Thus the limit of g(x)/h(x) as x → 1 may or may not exist. When it exists, it must be either
+∞ or −∞.
f (x)h(x)
(c) lim
x→1 g(x) + h(x)

Solution: Notice that

lim { f (x)h(x)} = {lim f (x)}{lim h(x)} = 4 · 0 = 0,

x→1 x→1 x→1
lim {g(x) + h(x)} = lim g(x) + lim h(x) = 4 + 0 = 4 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1

Therefore,
f (x)h(x) 0
lim = = 0.
x→1 g(x) + h(x) 4
(d) lim {5g(x) + 4h(x)}
x→1
Solution: The limit exists and is 5 limx→1 g(x) + 4 limx→1 h(x) = 5 · 4 + 4 · 0 = 20.

6
 8. Find the following limits at ±∞, if they exist:
8x3 + 4x2 − 5
(a) lim
x→∞ 6x3 − 7x + 2
Solution: The limit exists and is given by
8x3 + 4x2 − 5 8 + 4/x − 5/x3 8+0−0 8 4
lim 3
= lim 2 3
= = = .
x→∞ 6x − 7x + 2 x→∞ 6 − 7/x + 2/x 6−0+0 6 3
9x2 sin x − 3x + 2
(b) lim
x→−∞ 6x3 − 4x2 + 5
Solution: The limit exists and is zero, because
9x2 sin x − 3x + 2 (9/x) sin x − 3/x2 + 2/x3 0 − 0 + 0
lim = lim = = 0.
x→−∞ 6x3 − 4x2 + 5 x→−∞ 6 − 4/x + 5/x3 6−0+0
5x sin x + 7
(c) lim
x→−∞ 6x − 11
Solution: This limit does not exist. To see this notice that the function can be rewritten
in the form,
5x sin x + 7 5 sin x + 7/x
= .
6x − 11 6 − 11/x
When x is large, the right-hand side is approximately (5/6) sin x. As this function takes
every value in the interval [−5/6, 5/6] as x runs through any interval of length 2π it follows
that (5/6) sin x does not approach any single number as x goes to −∞. So the required limit
does not exist.

9. Decide whether the following limits exist, and find them when they do exist:
1
(a) lim
x→0 sin x
Solution: The limit does not exist. As x approaches 0 along the positive half of the
real line, sin x is small and positive, and so 1/ sin x is increasingly large and positive. But
approaching 0 from the other side gives increasingly large and negative values for 1/ sin x.
Thus it has one-sided infinite limits, but no two-sided limit.
1
(b) lim
x→0 1 − cos x
Solution: Since cos x ≤ 1 for all x, the values of 1/(1 − cos x) are positive, where defined.
Hence, the denominator tends to zero through positive values as x → 0 from both sides.
Hence, the limit exists (as a two-sided infinite limit) and equals +∞.
(c) lim (3x − x2 )
x→∞
Solution: For x large, the quadratic term −x2 grows faster than the linear term 3x. Hence,
the limit exists and equals −∞. Another way to see this is to write 3x − x2 = x(3 − x).
The first factor x tends to +∞ while the second factor 3 − x tends to −∞. This is a
case where the limit law for products can be applied to infinite limits, since the state-
ment (+∞)(−∞) = −∞ is correct and unambiguous. Hence the limit of x(3 − x) as x → ∞
exists and equals −∞.

10. Find the limit, if it exists, or show that the limit does not exist.
(a) lim (x2 y2 − 2xy5 + 3y)
(x,y)→(2,3)
Solution: The function is a polynomial, and we know that the limit laws allow us to just
substitute the value (x, y) = (2, 3) into the function. The value of the limit is therefore
(22 )(32 ) − 2(2)(35 ) + 3(3) = 36 − 972 + 9 = −927.

7
 x2 y3 + x3 y2 − 5
(b) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) 2 − xy
Solution: Since this is a rational function and its denominator is not zero at (0, 0), the
limit laws allow us to just substitute (x, y) = (0, 0) into the function. The value of the limit
is (0 + 0 − 5)/(2 − 0) = −5/2.
x3 + xy2
(c) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2
Solution: The limit exists and is zero, for

x3 + xy2 x(x2 + y2 )
lim = lim = lim x = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2 (x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2 (x,y)→(0,0)

Remarks. The cancellation in this example hides the true nature of this limit and more
general examples like it that do not have the cancellation. Consider the function,

ax3 + bx2 y + cxy2 + dy3

f (x, y) = ,
x2 + y2

where a, b, c and d are constants. The domain of f is R2 \{(0, 0)}. We claim that f (x, y) →
0 as (x, y) → (0, 0) on all possible paths. In other words, the limit exists and equals zero.
To prove this, switch to polar coordinates (r, θ ), where x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ , as we
did in the remark at the end of Question ??. Use the identity, cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, in the
denominator. We find that

f (x, y) = r{a cos3 θ + b cos2 θ sin θ + c cos θ sin2 θ + d sin3 θ },

| f (x, y)| ≤ r{|a| + |b| + |c| + |d|} = Ar,

where A is a constant. Now, whatever path is chosen to approach the origin, the radial
coordinate r on that path must approach zero. It follows that f (x, y) approaches zero along
every path to the origin by the squeeze law. (This method of polar coordinates can handle
many limit problems in two dimensions.)
x−y
(d) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2

Solution: Let f (x, y) = (x − y)/(x2 + y2 ). If the limit exists, it can be found by approach-
ing (0, 0) along the x-axis. Now, since

x 1
f (x, 0) = = , x 6= 0,
x2 x
we find that lim f (x, 0) = lim (1/x). As the limit lim (1/x) does not exist, on account of
x→0 x→0 x→0
the one-sided infinite limits having opposite signs, it follows that the limit lim f (x, y)
(x,y)→(0,0)
does not exist either.