Lab Journal Khinchi

Applied Physics Lab Journal

Dr. Shailendra S. Khinchi

Asstt. Professor - Applied Physics
Institute of Engineering & Technology
Devi Ahilya University, Indore (M.P.)

For
First Year Classes of Science & Engineering
of
All Universities of MP & CG

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Lab Journal Khinchi

Preface
Applied Physics is not an isolated bunch of theories which merely serve
vocational usefulness. What has been achieved in Physics has sooner or later made
tremendous impact on the technological growth of our society. To become active
participant in the technological revolution, one has to necessarily acquaint himself with
the method of Science. Mechanical memorizing of certain definitions and derivations does
not belong to the method of Science. The main purpose of teaching Physics to science
and engineering undergraduates is to equip them with an understanding of the “Scientific
method” so that they may use the training beneficially in their higher pursuits.

The Applied Physics Lab Journal is designed with two distinct objectives ; to
provide a single source of information for science and engineering undergraduates of
different specializations and provide them a solid base in Applied Physics Experiments.

Though the author makes no claims of originality, yet he has used his rich
experience gained in teaching the basic courses from last two decades. The author would
be grateful for bringing out constructive and fruitful suggestions for substantial
improvement of the book.

This note would be incomplete if I do not mention my love & thanks to my wife
Smt. Mamta Singh and my daughter baby Saumya Singh for their patience, understanding
and endless support.

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Lab Journal Khinchi

List of Experiments

1. To study the characteristics of a Diode / Zener Diode.

2. To study the characteristics of a Transistor (npn/pnp).
3. To study the Charging & Discharging of a Capacitor.
4. To study the Regulated Power Supply using Zener Diode.
5. To study the Energy Band Gap of a Semiconductor.
6. To determine the coefficient of viscosity “η” by the Stocke’s
method.
7. To determine Young’s Modulus “Y” by the Bending Beam Method.
8. To determine Modulus of rigidity “η” by the Maxwell’s Needle.
9. To determine Radius of curvature “R” by the Newton’s Ring
Method.
10. To determine refractive index “µ” of the Prism using Spectrometer.
11. To determine the wavelength of LASER light using Transmission
grating.
12. To verify Malus law using LASER light.

-----------------------

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Experiment # 1

1. Objective :
To study the characteristics of a Diode / Zener Diode.
2. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Training kit with Diode/ Zener diode, Ammeter, Voltmeter & connecting
wires.
3. Theory :
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current to flow in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger
than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage"..

A conventional solid-state diode will not let significant current flow if it is

reverse bias below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown
voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current flow due to
avalanche breakdown Unless this current is limited by external circuitry, the diode
will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current flow in the
direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in
voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the
semiconductor material and the doping concentrations.

4. Circuit diagram :

Fig. 1 : Zener diode in (i) In forward bias and (ii) In reverse bias.

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5. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. The experiment is performed in the following two steps;

(i) In forward bias and (ii) In reverse bias.
2. Make the connections according to the circuit diagrams.
3. Gradually increase the value of voltmeter and notedown the ammeter readings.
4. Draw the neat & clean graph on the Graph paper.

6. Observation Table :

(i) Table for Forward bias

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Ammeter =

Sr. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading

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(ii) Table for Reverse bias

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Ammeter =

Sr. No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading

7. Graph : (Attach the graph paper)

Fig. 1 : Characteristics of a Diode / Zener Diode

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8. Result / Conclusions : (Discuss the graph)

.

9. Precautions :

1. Connections should be tight .

2. Measuring instrument must be checked first.
3. The potential applied on the diode must be kept below its safe limit.
4. Least count should be calculated properly.
5. Graph should have proper scaling.

10. Important keywords :

Intrinsic Semiconductor, Extrinsic Semiconductor, Diode / Zener diode.

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Experiment # 2

8. Objective :
To study the characteristics of a Transistor (npn/pnp).
9. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Training kit with npn / pnp transistor, Ammeter, Voltmeter & connecting
wires.
10. Theory :

A transistor is a small device constructed from P and N type (silicon/

germanium) semi-conductor which can be used as a triode valve. It is constructed
by joining the two P-N junctions with each other in opposite order. Both electron
and hole are responsible for current flow in transistor. The three semiconductor
layers are respectively called the emitter, the base and the collector. The middle
semi-conductor layer is always kept very thin (~10-6 ) and it is always the base
while the remaining two semiconductor layer are emitter and collector. On
comparing with thermionic triode valve, the emitter of transistor is equivalent to
cathode of triode, the collector is equivalent to plate and base is equivalent to grid.

Transistor mainly are of two type:- (i) NPN type and (ii) PNP type Transistor

(i) NPN type it is made by joining the layers of N type semi conductor on either side
of a thin layer of P type semiconductor. It has N type emitter, P type base and N
type collector.

(ii) PNP it is made by joining the layers of P type semi conductor on either side of a
thin layer of N type semiconductor it consist of P type emitter , N type base and P
type collector.

There are three configuration of a transistor.

(i) Common base mode (ii) Common emitter mode & (iii) Common collector
mode.

Here we study common emitter configuration and its Input and Output
characteristcs.

Input characteristics OR IB-VB characteristics curve. a graph is plotted

between the base current IB and the emitter base voltage VBE keeping the collector
emitter voltage VCE constant, is called the input characteristics curve.

Output characteristics OR IC-VC characteristics curve. Graph is plotted

between the collectors current IC and the collector emitter voltage VCE at constant
base current IB is called the output characteristics curve.

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11. Circuit diagram :

Fig. 1 : Circuit diagram of pnp transistor

12. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. The experiment is performed in the following two steps;

(i) For Input characteristics and (ii) For output characteristics
3. Make the connections according to the circuit diagrams.
3. Gradually increase the value of voltmeter and notedown the ammeter readings
keeping the one parameter constant.
5. Draw the neat & clean graph on the Graph paper.

13. Observation Table :

(i) For Input characteristics

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Ammeter =

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Sr. No. Voltmeter Ammeter Reading

Reading

(ii) For output characteristics

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Ammeter =

Sr. No. Voltmeter Ammeter Reading

Reading

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14. Graph : (Attach the graph paper)

Fig. 1 : Characteristics of a Transistor

7. Conclusions : (Discuss the graph)

.

9. Precautions :

1. Connections should be tight .

2. Measuring instrument must be checked first.
3. The potential applied on the transistor must be kept below its safe limit.
4. Least count should be calculated properly.
5. Graph should have proper scaling.

10. Important keywords :

Intrinsic Semiconductor, Extrinsic Semiconductor, npn / pnp transistor.

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Experiment # 3

15. Objective :
To study the Charging & Discharging of a Capacitor
16. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Training kit with Capacitor, Resistance , Ammeter, Voltmeter, Stopwatch
& connecting wires.
17. Theory :
When a condenser of capacity C is connected in series with a resistance R
and a battery of constant emf E, the capacitor is gradually charged. The charging
current in the circuit decreases and finally becomes zero when the potential
difference across the capacitor becomes equal to E. the charge on capacitor at any
instant ‘t’ during charging is given by Q = Q0 ( 1- e-t/RC).Where Q0 = final study
charge on capacitor. The charge current in the circuit is given by I = I0 e-t/RC where
I0 = Q0/ RC is the maximum current. The rate of charging and discharging both
depend on the value of RC. This quantity is called time constant of the circuit.
If t = RC, then during the charging Q = Q0 ( 1- e-1). = 0.63 Q0 and during
the discharge Q = Q0 e-1 = 0.37 Q0. Hance the time constant of the circuit is that
time in which during charging the charge on condenser becomes 63% of its
maximum value or it is the time in which during discharging the charge on
condenser falls to 37% of its initial maximum valve. Larger the time constant of a
circuit, slower is the rate of charging and discharging.

18. Circuit diagram :

Fig. 1 : Circuit diagram for the Charging & Discharging of a Capacitor

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19. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. The experiment is performed in the following two steps;

(i) In case of Charging and (ii) In case of Discharging
4. Make the connections according to the circuit diagrams.
3. Take the corrosponding values of voltmeter and stopwatch in both the cases of
Charging & Discharging.
6. Draw the neat & clean graph on the Graph paper.

20. Observation Table :

(i) In case of Charging

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Stopwatch =

Sr. No. Voltmeter Reading Stopwatch Reading

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Lab Journal Khinchi

(ii) In case of Discharging

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Stopwatch =

Sr. No. Voltmeter Reading Stopwatch Reading

7. Graph : (Attach the graph paper)

Fig. 2 : Graphs (i) In case of Charging and (ii) In case of Discharging

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8. Conclusions : (Discuss the graph)

.

9. Precautions :

1. Connections should be tight .

2. Measuring instrument must be checked first.
3. The potential applied on the diode must be kept below its safe limit.
4. Least count should be calculated properly.
5. Graph should have proper scaling.

10. Important keywords :

Capacitor, Resistance, Time constant.

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Experiment # 4

21. Objective :
To study the Regulated Power Supply using Zener Diode.
22. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Training kit with the circuit of Regulated power supply, Ammeter,
Voltmeter & connecting wires.
23. Theory & Formula used :

Generally we required a constant d-c voltage in all electronic equipments. A

rectifier converts an a-c voltage into a d-c voltage so obtained is not constant. The
device is used to convert a-c power to d-c power is called power supply.

There are two kind of power supply.

(i) Unregulated power supply.

(ii) Regulated power supply.

In an unregulated power supply, although output d-c voltage is obtained in the

complete cycle of input a-c voltage but the d-c voltage does not remain constant
on changing the current in the load.

In regulated power supply the output d-c voltage almost remain constant even on
changing the current in the load or on changing the input voltage. So to obtained
constant output d-c voltage with change in input d-c voltage or change in load
current, a voltage regulating is employed in between the filter and load. We have
read that the zener diode can be used in the reverse bias in the voltage regulator.
When the reverse bias voltage on zener diode is either equal to or grater then the
zener breakdown voltage, a constant zener current flow through it. Hence to
control the reverse bias voltage on the zener diode, the output current from the
filter circuit is first passed through a constant resistance called the and then
through the zener diode.

The regulated power supply has the following four parts.

(i) Full wave rectifier. (ii) Filter circuit

(iii) Voltage regulator circuit and (IV) lode resistance

A graph is plotted for the regulated voltage against the load current which is
obtained as shown in fig. this is characteristics for the regulated power supply for
change in load current.

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24. Circuit diagram :

Fig. 1 : Circuit diagram of Regulated power supply

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25. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Make the connections according to the circuit diagrams.

3. Gradually increase the value of ammeter and notedown the voltmeter
readings in the table.
7. Draw the neat & clean graph on the Graph paper.

26. Observation Table :

Least count of Voltmeter =

Least count of Ammeter =

Sr. No. Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading

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Lab Journal Khinchi

6. Graph : (Attach the graph paper)

7. Calculation :

8. Result & Conclusions

.

9. Precautions :

1. Connections should be tight .

2. Measuring instrument must be checked first.
3. The potential applied on the diode must be kept below its safe limit.
4. Least count should be calculated properly.
5. Graph should have proper scaling.

10. Important keywords :

Transformer, Rectifiers, Filters, Voltage Regulator.

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Experiment # 5

27. Objective :
To study the Energy Band Gap of a Semiconductor.
28. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Training kit with a Junction Diode, Ammeter, Thermometer, Heater &
connecting wires.
29. Theory & Formula used :

It is the energy gap in which there are no allowed energy states of electron.
i.e no electron can remain in this energy gap. All the energy states below this
energy gap are completely filled by the electron while the energy states above this
gap are either completely empty or partial filled. The lower completely filled
energy band is called the valance band and the upper completely empty or
partially filled energy band is called the conduction band. The energy gap
between these two bands is called the band gap energy.

when P-N junction is kept in reverse bias, the current follows through the
junction due to minority charge carriers (i.e. electron in P region and holes in N
region) the concentration of these carriers depends on the energy gap Eg. The
saturated value of reveres current Is depends on the temperature of junction diode
and given as

Is = A[NneVn + NpeVp] e-Eg/kT

Nn and Np are the concentration of electron in N region that of holes in P region.

Vn and Vp are the drift velocity of electron and holes, A is the area of junction, K
is the boltzman constant and T is the absolute temperature.

Eg = - [slope of the straight line in eV]/5.036

30. Circuit diagram :

Fig. 1 : Circuit diagram of Energy Band Gap setup

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31. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Make the connections according to the circuit diagrams.

2. Gradually increase the value of Temperature and notedown the ammeter
readings in the table.
3. Convert T into 103/T and Is into Log10 Is.
8. Draw the neat & clean graph between 103/T and Log10 Is on the Graph.

32. Observation Table :

Least count of Thermometer =

Least count of Ammeter =

Sr. No. Current Is Temp. t Temp K 103/T Log10 Is

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33. Graph : (Attach the graph paper)

Fig. 2 : Line graph for Energy Band Gap setup

8. Calculation :

9. Result & Conclusions :

.

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9. Precautions :

1. Connections should be tight .

2. Measuring instrument must be checked first.
3. The potential applied on the diode must be kept below its safe limit.
4. Least count should be calculated properly.
5. Graph should have proper scaling.

10. Important keywords :

Bands in semiconductors, Fermi energy level, Temperature coefficient.

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Experiment # 6

34. Objective :
To determine the coefficient of viscosity “η” by the Stocke’s method.
2. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Stocke’s viscometer, Experimental liquid (Glycerine), Small steel
bolls, Screw gauge, Stop watch and Meter scale.
3. Theory & Formula used :
Viscosity of a liquid is a property due to which its different layers have
a tendency to oppose their relative motion. Viscosity in liquids arises because of
forces of cohesion of molecules. If the velocity of flow of a liquid is less it flow
in strait parallel layers. Such a regular flow is called the stream line flow. In this
flow, the direction of motion particles passing successively through a point
remains the same. When the velocity of flow of liquid is large, the direction of
motion of particle from a point does not remain the same. This irregular flow is
called turbulent flow. The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in its
temperature.

Flowing liquid has the following three form of energy.

(1) Potential energy (2) Kinetic energy (3) Pressure energy.
According to Newton, the viscous force acting between two layers of a liquid
flowing under stream line condition is:
(1) Directly proportional to the surface area A of the layers.
(2) Inversely proportional to perpendicular distance x between these layers, and
(3) Directly proportional to the relative velocity (v1-v2) between these layers.
Thus viscous force F α A, F α 1/x and F α (v1-v2) ,

(v1-v2)
Fα A
x

(v1-v2)
F= - η A
x

Here (v1-v2)/x = velocity gradient i.e. difference in velocity of two layers

at unit distance apart. Its unit is sec-1. η is constant called as coefficient of
viscosity of a liquid. The value of the η depends on the nature of liquid and its
temperature. The negative sign here shows that the direction of viscous force is
opposite to the direction of flow of liquid.

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When the viscous force acting on the free falling spherical body in a
viscous liquid becomes equal and opposite to the effective force of gravity on it,
the body is in dynamical equilibrium and the body falls down with a constant
velocity. This velocity of is called the terminal velocity.
The three forces acting on the body in this condition: weight of the body
acting vertically downwards, up thrust acting vertically upward, and the viscous
force acting vertically upward. But the resultant of all these force is zero, so the
net force on the falling body in this condition is zero.
The terminal velocity of the body is directly proportional to the square of the
radius of the body, directly proportional to the difference in densities of the body
and medium (liquid), and inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity of
the liquid.
When the small ball is made to fall freely in viscous liquid, its velocity
first increases due to gravity. But as the velocity of the ball increases, according to
stocke’s low the viscous force due viscosity of liquid, in direction opposite to the
motion of the ball also increases. As a consequence the ball falls down with a
constant velocity v, which is called terminal velocity.
Coefficient of viscosity of liquid
2 r 2 g (d − ρ )
η=
9 (h / t )
Where r = radius of ball, d = density of material of ball, ρ = density of liquid ,
g = acceleration due to gravity, h = distance travelled by the ball, t = time taken.

4. Setup diagram :

Fig. 1 : Set up diagram for Stoke’s law

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5. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. First measure note the distance between consecutive graduations on the tube A
with a meter scale.
2. Now drop a ball gently in the tube C and keep your eye in the line of first marking
of tube A. as the ball reaches start the stop watch and move your eye in the line of
second marking.
3. Note the time t1 in traversing the distance h1 by the ball between the first two
markings. Repeat the experiment to find the time t2 in traversing the distance h2
between the second and third marking, the time t3in traversing the distance h3by
the ball between the third and fourth marking, and so on.
4. Then calculate h1/ t1, h2/t2 ,h3 / t3, ……….. From this readings and find the terminal
velocity of the ball by taking the mean value of them.
5. Measure the mean dimeter of the ball.
6. Repeat the experiment for other balls.

6. Observation Table :

(i) For the radius of the boll :

Least count of Screw gauge =

Sr. No. Main scale Vernier scale reading Total Reading

reading

(ii) For the terminal velocity :

Least count of Stop watch =

Sr. No. Distance Time Terminal Velocity

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6. Calculations :

7. Result :

(i) Standard Value =

(ii) Calculated Value =

8. Percentage Error :

9. Precautions :

10. Important keywords :

Stocke’s law, Viscosity, Terminal velocity.
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Experiment # 7
35. Objective :
To determine Young’s Modulus “Y” by the Bending Beam Method.
36. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Experimental beam,Two knife edges, Spherometer, Galvenometer,
Screw gauge, Vernier callipers , Set of weights and Meter scale.
37. Theory & Formula used :
Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to longitudinal strain
within elastic limit. The longitudinal stress is measured by observing the change
in length per unit length if L is the length of wire and an increase in length is
produce by a factor F, then
Strain = l/L. and
Young’s modulus = stress/strain = (F/a) ÷ (l/L) =(FL)/(al).
In S.I unit of Young’s modulus is expressed in (N/m2).

Young’s modulus of the material of beam

Mgl 3
Y=
4bd 3δ

Where M = mass of load suspended from the beam, g = acceleration due to

gravity, l = length of the beam suspended between the two knife edges, b =
breadth of the beam, d = thichness of the beam, δ = depression of the beam at its
mid point.

4. Setup diagram :

Fig. 1 : Setup for Bending beam method

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5. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Place the experimental beam of 1m length and uniform cross rectangular cross-
section symmetrically between the knife edges.
2. Suspend the hanger exactly midway between the two knife edges.
3. Measure the length of beam l between the two knife edges.
4. Measure the breath b of the beam with the help of vernier callipers, at different
place and find its mean value.
5. Measure the thickness d of the beam using screw gauge, at different place and find
its mean value.
6. Find the least count of the spherometer.
7. When there is no load on the hanger, rotate the screw of the spherometer
downward till it just touches the beam. in this position , if the key is closed the
circuit is completed and the deflection is obtained in the galvanometer. Note this
reading of spherometer.
8. Now gently place half kg weight on hanger, and note the reading of spherometer.
9. Next continue to increase the weight on the hanger in equal steps of ½ kg and six
observations are recorded.
10. After taking the observation with the last weight, remove the half kg weight, and
note the reading of the spherometer.
11. Continue removing the weight from the hanger in steps of ½ kg and each time
record the spherometer reading. Take care that the screw of the spherometer is
always turned in one direction so as to avoid backlash error.

6. Observation Table :
The length of the beam between the two knife edges =
(i) For the breadth of the beam :
Least count of Vernier calipers =

Sr. No. Main scale Vernier scale reading Total Reading

reading

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(ii) For the thickness of the beam :

Least count of Screw gauge =

Sr. No. Main scale Vernier scale reading Total Reading

reading

(iii) For depression of the beam :

Least count of Spherometer =

Sr. Mass of Spherometer Reading Spherometer Reading Mean Depression

No. Load Load increasing Load decreasing Reading For
suspended M.S. V.S. T.R. M.S. V.S. T.R. M=1.5 Kg

7. Calculations :

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8. Result :

(i) Standard Value =

(ii) Calculated Value =

9. Percentage Error :

10. Precautions :

11. Important keywords :

Elasticity, Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, Cantilever.

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Experiment # 8

38. Objective :
To determine Modulus of rigidity “η” by the Maxwell’s Needle.
39. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Maxwell’s needle, Experimental wire , Screw gauge, Stop watch and
Meter scale.
40. Theory & Formula used :
The rigidity of a solid to resist the forces tending to change its shape is
called rigidity. And the modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of tangential
stress to the shearing strain. The principle of our experiment is when Maxwell’s
needle is slightly turned in horizontal plane and then released, it executed
torsional oscillation, the time period of which depends on the modulus of rigidity
of the material of the wire.
The Maxwell’s needle consists of cylindrical hollow brass tube of length
nearly 40cm and diameter 3-4cm with its both ends open. The tube is suspended
horizontally from a rigid support by means of experimental wire of length nearly
50cm. there are two solid cylinders and two hollow cylinders, each of same length
(i.e., each length one-forth the length of the tube) and of diameter exactly equal to
the internal diameter of the tube. These cylinders can be kept inside the tube
symmetrically to keep the tube horizontal.
Modulus of rigidity of material of wire

2πl ( M S − M H ) L2
η=
r 4 (T12 − T22 )
Where l = length of the suspension wire, MS = mass of the solid cylinder, MH =
mass of the hollow cylinder, L = length of the Maxwell’s needle, r = radius of the
wire, T1 = time period when hollow cylinders are placed inside, T2 = time period
when solid cylinders are placed inside.

4. Setup diagram :

Fig. 1 : Maxwell’s needle setup

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41. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Put the two hollow cylinder H, in the middle and solid cylinder S on the outer side
of the hollow tube
2. Turn the needle slightly in the horizontal plane without giving it any lateral
motion and then released it the system start executing tortional oscillations.
3. Measure the time t1of 10 oscillation with the help of stop watch. And dividing the
time with the number of oscillation, the time period T1 is calculated.
4. The experiment is repeated to obtained three observations and mean time period
T1 is found.
5. Now interchange the position of hollow and solid cylinders and again the needle is
turned slightly in a horizontal plane and then released.
6. Notice the time t2 of 10 oscillations with a stop watch and find the time period T2
by dividing the time t2 with the number of oscillation.
The experiment is repeated to obtain three observations and mean time period T2
is calculated.
7. Measure the length l of the wire from the rigid support up to the Maxwell’s
needle, using meter scale.
8. Measure the dimeter of the wire to fined radius r of the wire.
9. Measure the length L of the hollow tube of Maxwell’s needle .
10. Weight separately the solid cylinder and hollow cylinder to find the mean mass
Ms of solid cylinder and mean mass MH of the hollow cylinder.

5. Observation Table :
Length of the wire =
Length of the Maxwell’s needle =
(i) For the radius of the wire :
Least count of Screw gauge =

Sr. No. Main scale Vernier scale reading Total Reading

reading

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(i) For the Time reriod T1 & T2 :

Least count of Stop watch =
Sr. No. of When hallow cylinders are inside When Solid cylinders are inside
No. Oscillations Time required Time period Time required Time period

6. Calculations :

7. Result :

(i) Standard Value =

(ii) Calculated Value =

8. Percentage Error :

9. Precautions :

10. Important keywords :

Elasticity, Hooke’s law, Moment of inertia, Modulus of rigidity,
Torsional rigidity.

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Experiment # 9

42. Objective :
To determine Radius of curvature “R” by the Newton’s Ring Method
43. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Setup of Newton’s Ring method, Source of monochromatic light (Sodium
lamp) and Reading lamp.
44. Theory & Formula used :
When a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is kept on a plane
glass plate such that the convex surface of the lens is in contact with the plate, a
wedge-shaped air film is formed between the lens and the plate. The thickness of
the film increases outwards from the point of contact. The thickness of the film is
zero at the point of contact of lens and plate. Thus, the air film is radially
symmetrical about the point of contact. When the light from a monochromatic
extended source is made incident normally on the film and the film is seen in the
reflected part through the microscope, we get the dark spot at the center
surrounded with alternate concentric bright and dark rings. These fringes are
fringes of equal thickness.

The Radius of curvature “R” can be determined by

Dn2+ p + Dn2
R=
4 pλ
Where Dn+p & Dn are the diameters of (n+p) & nth rings respectively,
p is the difference and λ is wavelength of light used (5893 Å).

4. Setup diagram :
As shown in fig.1, S an extended source of monochromatic light as sodium
lamp. Light rays from the source S fall on plane glass plate P’ kept inclined at an
angle 450 with the vertical the light reflected from the plate P’ falls normally on
the Plano-convex lens on a plane glass plate P. the curved surface of lens and
upper surface of plate behave respectively as the upper and lower surface of the
air film. Interference occurs between the waves obtained due to partial reflection
and partial transmission from the upper and lower surface of the air film.
The interference fringes are seen in the reflected part through the
microscope M focused on the film. The interference fringes are circular rings.

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Fig 1 : Setup of Newton’s Ring Experiment

45. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Adjust the position of the microscope so that it lies vertically above the centre of
the lens.
2. Adjust the position of the microscope till the point of intersection of the cross-
wires coincides with the center of the ring system and one of the cross-wires is
perpendicular to the horizontal scale.
3. Slide the microscope to the left till the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre of
the 20th dark ring.
4. Slide the microscope backward with the help of slow motion screw and note the
readings when the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre of the 16th, 12th,8th and
4th dark rings respectively.
5. Keep on sliding the microscope to the right and note the readings when the cross-
wire lies tangentially at the centre of the 4th , 8th , 12th and 16th dark rings
respectively.
6. The difference in the readings on the two sides of a ring will be its dimeter

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6. Observation Table :
(i) For the diameter of the rings :
Least count of Microscope =

Ring No. Reading of microscope Reading of microscope Diameter D2

On left side of centre On left side of centre Of Ring (In cm2)
M.R. V.R. T.R. M.R. V.R. T.R. D

6. Calculations :

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7. Result :

(i) Standard Value =

(ii) Calculated Value =

8. Percentage Error :

9. Precautions :

10. Important keywords :

Interference of light waves, Wedge shaped film, Colors in thin films.

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Experiment # 10

1. Objective :
To determine refractive index “µ” of the Prism using Spectrometer.
2. Equipments/ Instruments required :
Spectrometer, Light source (Sodium / Mercury lamp), Prism and Reading
lamp.
3. Formula used :
Refractive index “µ” of the material of the Prism can be calculated by
Sin((α + δ m ) / 2)
µ=
Sin(α / 2)

where α is the the angle of the prism and δm is the the minimum angle of
deviation.
4. Description of Spectrometer :
The spectrometer is a very simple instrument used to analyze light as to its
composition, polarization, intensity and other characteristics. In this manual we will
discuss only the essential parts and their functions. All spectrometers consist of a
collimator, a prism table and a telescope.

Fig. 1(a) : Spectrometer

The light to be analyzed illuminates a narrow slit located at the focal point of the
collimator lens. Thebeam of light leaving the collimator is parallel and falls on the prism
mounted on the prism table. The light is dispersed by the prism and can be examined by
the telescope. The table can be move up and down to accommodate prisms of any height.
The table can be rotated, and its current position can be read from the venire scale on an
embossed ring. A clamp is provided to secure the chosen position of the table.

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The collimator is usually in a fixed position with regard to the base and cannot be
rotated. It can be focused by hand and may clamped in any position. Before you start the
measurements, be sure that the collimator is focused on the slit jaws. The slit jaws are
movable, and you can adjust the width of the slit. When the slit is wide open, more light
passes through it so you can easily detect the image, but the precision of the reading is
low. To increase the accuracy of your measurements, it will be necessary to decrease the
slit width; but it may result in a faint image. Therefore, you may start the measurements
with a wide slit and gradually narrow the slit to take the final readings.
The telescope should be in line with the collimator to enable observation of the
parallel beam emerging from the collimator. First, focus the eyepiece of the telescope on
the cross-hairs and then adjust it so a distant object can be clearly seen. Next bring the
telescope into line with the collimator by adjusting the leveling screws. Make sure that
both the collimator and the telescope are horizontal and at that the table is at the proper
height. Finally, check that the telescope is focused on the slit; if not you may adjust it by
means of the focusing screw.

5. Procedure :
Start the experiment only if the spectrometer has been properly aligned and
you can clearly see the slit image and the cross-hairs are in focus.

Fig. 1(a) : Spectrometer setup for the angle of prism

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You can find the apex angle of the prism using a bulb lamp or a discharge lamp.
However, it is easier to work with a bulb lamp. Move the telescope until an image of
the slit, reflected from one surface of the prism, can be seen. Read the vernier at this
position.
Rotate the telescope so the image reflected off the other side of the prism will be
seen through the telescope. Read the vernier setting. The apex angle is one half the
difference between the two readings. Repeat these measurements for two different
orientations of the prism table and find the mean value of the apex angle.
As a source of light you will use a discharge lamp provided by the lab instructor.
Most likely it will be a mercury/Sodium lamp. As seen from Fig. 1(b) you need to
find two angles. One corresponding to the original direction of the beam, should be
found with the prism removed from the table. Then mount the prism again on the
table and rotate the telescope until you find the image of the slit. It will appear as a
series of lines of different colors. The position of the telescope at which the line of a
given color is seen on the cross-hairs determines the angle of deviation, but this is not
necessarily the angle of minimum deviation. To find this angle, rotate the prism table
until the image comes to a position where its motion is reversed as the rotation of the
prism table is continued. Where the image comes to a standstill, the angle of deviation
is at minimum and the position of the telescope should be read from the vernier
settings. The difference between the original direction of the beam (the non-deviated
light) and the deviated light will be the angle of minimum deviation.

Fig. 1(b) : Spectrometer setup for the minimum angle of deviation

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6. Observation Table :

Least count of Spectrometer =

(i) For the angle of prism :

Sr. For the light reflected from For the light reflected from Difference The value
the face AB of the Prism the face AC of the Prism in Vernier of Angle
No.
V1 Reading V2 Reading V1 Reading V2 Reading Readings of Prism

(ii) For the angle of minimum deviation :

Sr. In the line with the After refraction from Difference The Angle
axis of collimator the Prism in Vernier of
No.
V1 Reading V2 Reading V1 Reading V2 Reading Readings minimum
deviation

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7. Calculations :

8. Result :

9. Percentage Error :

10. Precautions :

11. Important keywords :

Reflection of Light waves, Refraction of Light waves, Angle of prism, Angle
of minimum deviation, Refractive index.

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Experiment # 11
1. Objective :
To determine the wavelength of LASER light using Transmission
grating.
2. Equipments/ Instruments required :
A He-Ne LASER, Transmission grating, Measuring tape, Screen and
Reading lamp.
3. Theory & Formula used :
Diffraction grating is optical component consisting of several parallel and
equidistance slit each of equal width, which produces the spectrum of light due to
diffraction. It is constructed by drawing several equidistance parallel line on an
optically plane glass plate with a pointed diamond.
The width of line drawn is opaque, while the space between two consecutive lines is
transparent and behaves like a slit through which light is transmitted this is why is
also called transmission grating .
Let each line of width b and separation between the two consecutive lines is d, then
according to diffraction formula

d sin θ = nλ
Where θ is the angle between direct beam and diffracted beam, and n is the order of
diffraction. λ is the wavelength of laser light. For first order spectrum, if n =1 then

d sin θ = λ

To knowing d (1/ number of line per cm) and measuring the angle θ, we can
determine the wavelength of laser light.

4. Setup diagram :

Fig. 1 : Setup used in the experiment

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5. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Mount the grating on the stand and illuminate it with the laser beam.
2. The beam on passing through grating produces several spots due to diffraction.
The brightest spot is the central maxima.
4. On both sides of central maxima, there are several bright spots of diminishing
intensity which show the different orders of diffraction.
5. Measure the separation between the central maxima and first spot (i.e. x cm.).
6. Also measure the distance of the screen from the grating (i.e. r cm.).
7. Calculate θ = x/r rad, then multiply it by 180/π to convert it into degrees.

6. Observation Table :

d = 1 / (No. of lines per cm.)

(i) For the Angle of diffraction & Sin θ :

Sr. No. x Reading r Reading θ=x/r Sin θ

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7. Calculations :

8. Result :

(i) Standard Value =

(ii) Calculated Value =

9. Percentage Error :

10. Precautions :

11. Important keywords :

Stimulated emission, Population inversion, Metastable state, Optical
Resonator, Wavelength of light, Diffraction of light waves.

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Experiment # 12

1. Objective :
To verify Malus law using LASER light.
2. Equipments/ Instruments required :
A He-Ne LASER, A pair of polarizer and analyzer both mounted in
circular scales, Detector, Mounts and Multimeter.
3. Theory :
When a beam of plane polarized light is analysed by an analyzer,
the intensity changes from a maximum to a minimum when the analyzer is
rotated through 900.This intensity change takes place according to Malus
law which is given by the relation :
I = I0 Cos2θ
Where I is the intensity of the beam when the analyzer has been rotated

through an angle from the position of maximum intensity I0 and θ is the

angle of rotation.

4. Setup diagram :

Fig. 1 : Setup diagram for Malus law veryfication

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5. Procedure to perform the experiment :

1. Allow the leser beam to fall on to the polarizer and then on to the analyzer.
2. Adjust the position of the analyzer so that the meter reads the maximum intensity.
3. Rotate the analyzer in steps of 10 degrees and notedown the meter reading.
4. Apply I = I0 Cos2θ and very the law.

6. Observation Table :

Sr. No. θ (in degree) Meter Reading I = I0 Cos2θ

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7. Result & conclusion : (Attach the graph)

9. Precautions :
1. Extra precautions must be taken while using the laser light.
2. Pointer should be checked while using the multimeter.
3. Take the readings carefully.

10. Important keywords :

Stimulated emission, Population inversion, Metastable state, Optical
Resonator, Wavelength of light, Polarizer, Analyser, Polarisation of light waves.

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Note

Please refer the subject textbook for the theory.

Procedure may defers but make sure that
The Error Bar should be reduced.

******** Best of Luck ********

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