THE CELL: AN

OVERVIEW
General Biology 1
Prof. FLORMAY O. MANALO,
LPT, MAEd Educ Admin, Med Bio Sci
 Parts of a cell
Get a partner
 On a ¼ sheet of paper, write as many
cell parts that you can remember for
3 minutes only
 Exchange paper with your partner
and see who got many
Cells Fluorescently Labeled

Blue -Cell
nuclei

red and green -

cytoskeleton
1600s: Robert Hooke looked at cork through a
microscope, and named the tiny compartments he
observed cellulae

Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope he

constructed to observe “little animalcules” – he
discovered and described diverse protists, sperm
cells, and even bacteria

1820s: Robert Brown noticed a discrete, spherical

body inside some cells, which he called a nucleus
  Zacharias Janssen, probably with the
help of his father Hans, in the year
1595.
 consists of three draw tubes with
lenses inserted into the ends of the
flanking tubes.
 The eyepiece lens was bi-convex and
the objective lens was plano-convex, a
very advanced compound design for
this time period.

 Focusing of this hand-held microscope was achieved by sliding the

draw tube in or out while observing the sample.
 The Janssen microscope was capable of magnifying images
approximately three times when fully closed and up to ten times
when extended to the maximum.
Cell Theory

• By the mid-19th century, microscopic observations

had yielded three generalizations which
constitute the cell theory:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more
cells
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of all living organisms
3. Cells arise only from the division of
preexisting cells
 Basic Features of
Cell Structure and Function
As the basic structural and functional units of all living
organisms, cells carry out the essential processes of life

Cells contain DNA and RNA, which carry hereditary

information and direct manufacture of cellular
molecules

Cells use energy, respond to changes in their

environment, reproduce, and pass on hereditary
information
 Kinds of Cells

 Unicellular organisms carry out all activities

necessary for life

 In multicellular organisms, the activities of life

are divided among numbers of specialized cells

If cells are broken open, the property of life is

lost
 Examples of Cells
D. Algae F. Animal cells

G. Plant cells
E. Fungal cells
 Cells are small and are visualized
using a Microscope
 Most cells are too small to be seen by the unaided eye –
ranging from about 0.5 μm (bacteria) to a few hundred
micrometers (plant cells)

 Biologists use microscopy to see cells and the

structures within them:
• Light microscopes use light to illuminate the specimen
• Electron microscopes use electrons to illuminate the specimen
Magnification and Resolution
 Humans cannot see objects smaller than about 0.1 mm
without a microscope.

 Magnification is the ratio of the object as viewed to its

real size.
e.g. 1,200X

 Resolution is the minimum distance at which two

points can be separated and seen as two points.

 Depends primarily on the wavelength of light or

electrons used to illuminate the specimen
STUDY BREAK

•Let us know more

about organelles of
a cell.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKmaq7jPnYM
The Plasma Membrane
 All cells are bounded by the plasma membrane, a bilayer
made of lipids with embedded protein molecules

The lipid bilayer is a hydrophobic barrier to water-soluble

substances – selected substances can penetrate cell
membranes through transport protein channels

Selective transport of ions and water-soluble molecules

maintains the specialized internal environments required
for cellular life
The Plasma Membrane
Internal Organization
 A central region of all cells contains DNA molecules,
which store hereditary information ( genes)

 The cytoplasm (between the plasma membrane and the

central region) contains the cytosol and cytoskeleton

 Cytosol is an aqueous solution containing ions, various

organic molecules, and organelles

 The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and plays key

roles in cell division and chromosome segregation
 PROKARYOTIC and EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• Prokaryotes (domains Bacteria and Archaea)

• The nucleoid region has no boundary membrane
• Many species of bacteria have few internal membranes

• Eukaryotes (domain Eukarya)

• The true nucleus is separated from the surrounding cytoplasm by
membranes
• Cytoplasm typically contains extensive membrane systems that
form organelles
Prokaryotic Cells
 Three shapes are common among prokaryotes: spherical,
rodlike, and spiral

For most species, the DNA (located in the nucleoid) is a

single, circular molecule (the prokaryotic chromosome)

Information from DNA is copied into messenger RNA

(mRNA) molecules and carried to ribosomes in the
cytoplasm, which assemble amino acids into proteins
 Prokaryotic Cells (cont.)
 The plasma membrane is typically surrounded by a rigid
external cell wall coated with polysaccharides
(glycocalyx)

 When the glycocalyx is loosely associated with the cells,

it is a slime layer; when it is firmly attached, it is a
capsule

 The plasma membrane contains molecular systems that

metabolize food molecules (or light energy) into the
chemical energy of ATP
 Prokaryotic Cells (cont.)
 Prokaryotic cytoskeletons maintain cell shape and
function in cell division

 Many bacteria and archaeans move using long flagella –

the bacterial flagellum rotates in a socket and pushes the
cell through a liquid medium

 Hairlike pili attach the cell to surfaces or other cells – a

special sex pilus joins bacteria during mating
Prokaryotic Cells

 bacterium Escherichia coli  A typical E. coli has four flagella.

 Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus enclosed by membranes

 The cytoplasm contains a system of membranous organelles,

specialized to carry out functions of energy metabolism and
molecular synthesis, storage, and transport

 The cytosol participates in energy metabolism and molecular

synthesis and functions in support and motility

 Researchers use the research method of cell fractionation to

isolate and study cell organelles
Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall
The eukaryotic plasma membrane carries out various
functions through several types of embedded proteins
• Channel proteins transport substances in and out of cells
• Receptors recognize and bind specific signal molecules in the
cellular environment and trigger internal responses
• Immune system proteins label cells as “self”

A supportive cell wall surrounds the plasma

membrane of fungal, plant, and many protist cells
 The Eukaryotic Nucleus
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the
nuclear envelope, which consists of two membranes

A network of protein filaments (lamins) reinforces the

nuclear envelope in animal cells – other proteins reinforce
the nuclear envelope in protists, fungi, and plants

Nuclear pore complexes embedded in the nuclear

envelope regulate the transport of proteins and RNA
molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm
The Nuclear Envelope
The nuclear envelope,
which consists of a
system of two
concentric membranes
with nuclear pore
complexes embedded.
Nuclear pore complexes
are octagonally
symmetrical protein
structures with a
channel—the nuclear
pore—through the
center. They control the
transport of molecules
between the nucleus
and cytoplasm.
The Nuclear Envelope
 The Nucleus (cont.)
The liquid within the nucleus is called the
nucleoplasm

The nucleus contains chromatin, a combination of

DNA and proteins

In eukaryotes, each DNA molecule is linear –

organized with its proteins into a specific
eukaryotic chromosome

Human cells have 46 chromosomes

Eukaryotic Ribosomes
 A eukaryotic ribosome consists of a large and a
small subunit

 Some ribosomes are freely suspended in the cytosol

– others are attached to membranes

 Proteins made on free ribosomes may remain in the

cytosol, pass into the nucleus, or become parts of
mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton, or other
cytoplasmic structures

 Proteins made on ribosomes attached to the ER

follow a special path to other organelles in the cell
 The Endomembrane System
 Eukaryotic cells have an endomembrane system that
divides the cell into functional and structural
compartments

 The endomembrane system includes the nuclear

envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
lysosomes, vesicles, and plasma membrane
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Extensive interconnected network (reticulum) of
membranous channels and cisternae

Each cisterna is formed by a single membrane

that surrounds an enclosed space (ER lumen)

ER occurs in two forms: rough ER and

smooth ER
 Rough ER
 Rough ER has many ribosomes on its outer surface

 Proteins made on ribosomes attached to the ER enter the

ER lumen, where they fold into their final form

 Chemical modifications, such as addition of carbohydrate

groups to produce glycoproteins, occur in the lumen

 Proteins are delivered to other regions of the cell (e.g.

Golgi complex) within small vesicles that pinch off from
the ER
Rough ER
• Rough ER, showing the
ribosomes that stud the
membrane surfaces
facing the cytoplasm.

• Proteins synthesized on
these ribosomes enter
the lumen of the rough
ER where they are
modified chemically and
then begin their path to
their final destinations in
the cell.
Smooth ER
Smooth ER membranes have no ribosomes
attached to their surfaces

Smooth ER synthesizes lipids that become part of

cell membranes

In the liver, smooth ER converts drugs, poisons,

and toxic by-products into substances that can be
tolerated or more easily removed from the body
 Smooth ER
 Among their
functions are the
synthesis of lipids
for cell
membranes, and
enzymatic
conversion of
certain toxic
molecules to safer
molecules.
Golgi Complex
 The Golgi complex consists of a stack of flattened,
membranous sacs (cisternae)

 Proteins made in the ER enter on the cis face of the

complex, delivered by transport vesicles that fuse with
the membrane

 Proteins are chemically modified by removing segments

or adding functional groups, lipids or carbohydrates

 Modified proteins exit from the trans face in vesicles that

bud off from the membrane
Golgi Complex and the Exocytosis

 The Golgi complex “tags” proteins for sorting to

their final destinations

 Proteins to be secreted from the cell are transported

to the membrane in secretory vesicles which
release their contents to the exterior by exocytosis

 The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the plasma

membrane and becomes part of the plasma
membrane
 Exocytosis
Outside cell

Plasma membrane

Secretory vesicle

Cytoplasm
Endocytosis
Vesicles also form by the reverse process, endocytosis,
which brings molecules into the cell from the exterior

The plasma membrane forms a pocket, which bulges

inward and pinches off into the cytoplasm as an
endocytic vesicle

Endocytic vesicles carry materials to the Golgi complex

or other destinations such as lysosomes in animal cells
Endocytosis

Endocytic vesicle

 A secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing the

vesicle contents to the cell exterior. The vesicle membrane becomes
part of the plasma membrane
 Endocytosis: Materials from the cell exterior are enclosed in a
segment of the plasma membrane that pockets inward and pinches
off as an endocytic vesicle.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes that
digest complex molecules – cells recycle the
subunits of these molecules

Lysosomes are found in animals, but not in

plants

Lysosomes are formed by budding from the

Golgi complex – their hydrolytic enzymes are
synthesized in the rough ER
Summary: The Endomembrane System
MITOCHONDRIA
• Both membranes
surround the
innermost
compartment of the
mitochondrion
(mitochondrial matrix)
• Contains DNA,
ribosomes, and
other components

• ATP-generating
reactions occur in the
cristae and matrix
MICROBODIES
• Microbodies are
small, simple
membrane-bound
organelles with
various functions
specific to an
organism or cell
type

• They consist of a
single boundary
membrane that
encloses a
collection of
enzymes and other
proteins
MICROBODIES
 Microbodies
that produce
hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) as a
byproduct are
called peroxisomes

 Plant microbodies
that produce sugars
used by
mitochondria in
seeds are called
glyoxysomes or
glycosomes
The Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton is an
interconnected system of
protein fibers and tubes
that extends throughout
the cytoplasm

 The cytoskeleton
maintains a cell’s
characteristic shape and
internal organization, and
functions in movement

 The cytoskeleton of
animal and plant cells
contains microtubules,
intermediate filaments,
and microfilaments
Structure and Function of the Cytoskeleton
Flagella and Cila

 Flagella and cilia are elongated, motile structures that extend

from the cell surface – cilia are shorter than flagella and occur
in greater numbers

 Movements of a flagellum propel a cell through a watery

medium – the tail of a sperm cell is a flagellum
 Cilia

 Cilia move fluids over the cell surface – cilia

line the air passages of the lungs and sweep
out mucus containing bacteria, dust particles,
and other contaminants
Flagella and Cilia
Flagellar and Ciliary Beating Patterns
Flagellar and Ciliary Beating Patterns
Centrioles
Centrioles

 Found in
animal &
plant cells

 Produce
microtubules
during cell
reproduction
 Specialized
Structures of
Plant Cells
Specialized Structures of Plant Cells

 Some structures are found in plant

cells but not in animal cells:
 Chloroplasts
 A large central vacuole
 Plant cell walls

 Chloroplasts also occur in algal

protists and cell walls in algal
protists and fungi
Plastids

• Chloroplasts are yellow-green plastids – the sites of

photosynthesis in plant cells

• Amyloplasts are colorless plastids that store starch, a product

of photosynthesis
 Plastids

• Chromoplasts contain red and yellow

pigments and are responsible for the colors of
ripening fruits or autumn leaves

• All plastids contain DNA genomes and

molecular machinery for gene expression
and the synthesis of proteins on ribosomes

• Some of the proteins within plastids are

encoded by their genomes – others are
encoded by nuclear genes and are
imported into the organelles
Chloroplasts

 Chloroplasts are
surrounded by an
outer boundary
membrane and
an inner
boundary
membrane which
completely
enclose an inner
compartment
(stroma)
Central Vacuole

• Central vacuoles
are large vesicles
that perform
specialized
functions unique to
plants

• In a mature plant
cell, 90% or more of
the cell’s volume
may be occupied
by one or more
large central
vacuoles
Central Vacuole
Functions of central
vacuoles:

 Store salts,
organic acids,
sugars, storage
proteins,
pigments, and,
in some cells,
waste products

 Pigments
concentrated in
the vacuoles
produce colors
of many flowers
Central Vacuole
Functions of central
vacuoles:

 Contain
enzymes that
break down
biological
molecules

 Contain
molecules that
provide
chemical
defenses
against
pathogenic
organisms
 Cell Wall

 Cell walls
support
individual cells,
contain the
pressure
produced in
the central
vacuole, and
protect cells
against
invading
bacteria and
fungi
 Cell Wall
• Cell walls consist of
cellulose fibers:
• The primary cell
wall is relatively soft
and flexible
• The secondary cell
wall consists of
additional layers of
cellulose fibers and
branched
carbohydrates laid
down between the
primary wall and
the plasma
membrane
• In woody plants,
lignin reinforces
secondary cell
walls
 Cell Wall

 The walls of adjacent cells are held together by a layer of

polysaccharides (pectin) called the middle lamella

 Primary and secondary cell walls are perforated by

plasmodesmata – plasma membrane-lined channels that
connect the cytosols of adjacent cells
 Cell Wall
Section through five plasmodesmata that bridge the
middle lamella and primary walls of two plant cells

• Plasmodesmata allow ions and small molecules to move

directly from one cell to another through the cytosol
Cell Wall Structure in Plants
 Specialized
Structures of
Plant Cells
 Cell Surfaces and Junctions
• Animal cells have
specialized structures that
organize cells at three
levels:
• Individual cell adhesion
molecules bind cells
together
• Cell junctions seal the
spaces between cells
and provide direct
communication
between cells
• Extracellular matrix
(ECM) supports and
protects cells and
provides mechanical
linkages between
tissues
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

• Many animal
cells are
embedded in
an ECM that
consists of
proteins and
polysaccharides
secreted by the
cells themselves
 Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

• ECM forms the mass of

skin, bones, tendons,
and many highly
specialized
extracellular structures

• ECM also affects cell

division, adhesion,
motility, and embryonic
development, and
takes part in reactions
to wounds and disease
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
 Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

• Glycoproteins are
the main
component of ECM
– in animals the most
abundant ECM
glycoprotein is
collagen

• The consistency of
the matrix depends
on a network of
proteoglycans that
surrounds the
collagen fibers
 Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
• In bone, the network
is impregnated with
mineral crystals,
producing a
structure that is
dense and hard, yet
elastic

• Fibronectins bind to
receptor proteins
(integrins) in the
plasma membrane,
which bind to
microfilaments of the
cytoskeleton
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Animal vs. Plant Cell
Panoramic View of Prokaryotic
and Eukaryotic Cells