Analysis on Distributed Generation Integration into Low Voltage System

Network

1.Integration into Low Voltage System Network

GD systems integration (including those based on the use SR) is now a very important
subject; energy market liberalization and unbundling of electricity provider and network operator
in the EU, where the supplier operates on the free market and network operators on a regulated
market, have drawn attention to the connection GD existing networks (costs, barriers, benefits).
Integration means physically connecting the generator to the network with reference to
the safe and proper generator and control system so that energy resources to be exploited
optimally. Powered generators integration of renewable energy sources is fundamentally similar
to that of the corresponding fossil-fuel generators and is based on the same principles, but
renewables are often variable in time and dispersed geographically.
Networked distributed generators inject energy into a large interconnected network, along
with a variety of other generators, power generated from renewable sources accounting for only
a small fraction of that of all generators connected to the system. The presence of a large number
of small generating units distribution network will inevitably have some effect on the network,
while the share of GD is quite important, even in the transport network IT. GD plays an
important role in the balance of power because, largely, it is not Dispatchers (as conventional
plants) or predictable (as tasks).
In Europe GD is usually connected to distribution networks - Figure 1.

Figure1. Schematic representation of electrical networks in Europe and levels of

connection GD
On the other hand, the voltage which is connected to a GD dependent than its nominal
power; But there are many other factors influence so that a range of values can be given only as
general information. For example, it is common to calculate the so-called "short report"; it
expresses the ability of a proposed renewable sources (in MW) as a percentage of short-circuit
power at the point of connection (in MVA). Its value can be a rough guide for acceptability; the
typical values for the wind farms varies between 2 and 24%.
Another possibility is to calculate the ratio of short relationship:

𝑆𝑠𝑐𝑟 is short-circuit power of the network in kVA and 𝑆𝑠𝑐𝐺𝐷 is

contributing to short-circuit power generator in kVA. This ratio is calculated in the CCP, unless
there transformer (s) dedicated to a single consumer; In this case, the ratio is calculated on IT
transformer bar.
The value of the short circuit power in the connection point, which is a measure of the
strength of the network is an important design parameter, not only to predict the fault currents,
but also to predict the performance obtained under normal operating conditions and, in
particular, influence on the voltage. It is important to note that this value will decisively
determine the effects that will have the generator connection to the network. A small defective
power source involves a high impedance network and a relatively high voltage variation in PCC
caused by eating or active or reactive power injection.
In connection with the previous relationship can make the following comments:
• the value ratio is equal to the ratio of the fault current location and GD maximum
𝐼
amount of current generated by the unit (RSC = 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 );
𝐼
𝐷𝐺
• Experience shows that if the ratio is high (> 200), it is unlikely that the public system
problems occur flicker, voltage variation or harmonic steady to GD connection;
• If the ratio is low (<50), the possibility of developing these problems increase and
significant connection should be imposed more severe conditions;
• the wind systems and photovoltaic systems are characterized by large and unexpected
variations in output that can’t be controlled so that such schemes must be given attention if RSC
≥ 100.
In conclusion, we can say that the impact of the SR generator is heavily dependent on the
power grid fault in the connection point, as the power generator proposed. Table 1 gives values
of principle to full capacity generators that can be connected to a specific voltage level; they
should ensure that the influence of the generator in the voltage at the point of connection is
acceptable. Connecting to a higher voltage is usually more expensive because of rising cost of
transformers and circuit breakers, but also because of the greater length of the line that connects
to the existing network. Connecting to a voltage too low it can’t be accepted if the generator will
have much effect on the local network; this can lead to a situation where a developer wants ER
systems to connect to a voltage level for economic reasons, while connecting to the network
operator suggests a higher level.
Table 1. Connection GD
 On the other hand, the connection scheme depends on the type of the generator; The
general scheme shown in Figure 2 illustrates the interconnection of GD-based technologies for
generating synchronous (or asynchronous). Other technologies GD apply similar configurations;
In most cases, the voltage level at the PCC determines the need for a transformer. The smaller
can be directly connected to the LV.

Figure 2. The interconnection network of GD

2. Impact on the distribution network
As noted later, networking of distributed generators can create problems; in terms of the
network operator, the most important are:
• changing the voltage profile along the network;
• increase the short circuit power;
• changing power flows;
• malfunction of existing protections in the network;
• negative impact on power quality (including the emergence of tensions
Transitional as a result of connecting and disconnecting generators or even their functioning);
• congestion sides of the system is based on production levels.
2.1. Changing the voltage profile
For distribution networks that host GD, questions relating to the steady state voltage can
occur even during normal operation of GD. When a distributor is appointed to carry some power
from the primary station to consumers, the presence of generating units along the feeder can
cause a reverse power flow and therefore an increase in voltage; This phenomenon is illustrated
schematically in Figure 3.
 Figure 3. Changing the voltage profile due to the presence GD
As can be seen, a local generation unit may cause an increase in voltage not only in the
point of connection of the network but also in the surrounding areas; the extent to which these
voltage variations are beneficial or not depends heavily on network characteristics, the level of
penetration of distributed generation and consumption characteristics - Figure 4.

Figure 4. Variation of voltage around the connecting point of GD

Connecting a GD usually has the effect of increasing tension in the CCP, and this can
produce surges close to consumers (especially in a high penetration level). The need to limit
this voltage increase, rather than to overcome the thermal capacity of the line, can often result
in a limitation of the power generator can be connected to a specific location.
An initial estimate of the increase in voltage caused by connecting a generator can be
obtained from the analysis of that scheme, represented in a simplified form in Figure 5. Network
to PCC can be represented as a Thevenin equivalent, with estimated 𝑍𝑡ℎ Thevenin impedance of
the power short circuit and the ratio X / R at the point of connection.
Module this impedance is calculated with:
𝑉2
|𝑍𝑡ℎ |= , where V is nominal line voltage and 𝑆𝑘 if short-circuit power; ratio X / R is used
𝑆𝑘
to find resistance and reactance of 𝑍𝑡ℎ = R + jX.
 Figure 5. The equivalent circuit for estimating the voltage rise
The increase in voltage ΔV can be calculated by the formula:
𝑃∗𝑅+𝑄∗𝑋
ΔV= , where P and Q are positive if active and reactive powers are positive, ie
𝑉
the direction indicated in Figure 5; if the manufacturer there is an induction generator connected
directly to the network, Q has a negative value.
2.2. Proper functioning of the existing network protections
Protection is another key issue in the integration and interconnection GD. Proper
protection of distribution networks containing GD requires the development of concepts and
methods; they refer to the following:
• loss of network protection;
• reclosing functions;
• changes in the level of defects;
• coordinating protections;
• indication of earth;
• localizareaa defects.
There is need for total solutions us, but some may be adapted from IT systems; an
interesting topic will be protection JT networks based on traditional fuses; the plants using low
power electronic inverters, might as fault current value is not high enough to melt the fuse.
The answer to faulty generator must be coordinated with decentralized scheme
Distributor protection to prevent a malfunction of the latter, affecting other consumer supply
safety. If this condition is not met, two things can happen:
• fault current injected into the network of distributed generator can, at worst, may not be
detected by the network relays. As a result, it will continue to circulate, producing damage to
equipment and endangering the safety of personnel;
• decentralized generator system does not separate in case of a fault and continues to fuel an
electric arc fault, so that the fault does not disappear pote. GD should therefore be able to
recognize and separate fault system until the fault is repaired; separation must be made before
then reset the breaker feeder, placing it under tension. In otherwise there can be failures central
generator and other equipment.
Lack of coordination between the distributor and the protection of the generator can be
installed lead and other unpleasant situations:
• 1 relay existing feeder is acted, though not required, a failure occurs on the feeder 2 - Figure 7
(this can be avoided only by using targeted maximum relays);
 Figure 7. Operating incorrect relay
• if a failure occurs on the video to which it is connected GD share fault current supplied by the
generator is too high, leaving relay line fault does not see and does not work at all or work only
after the generator relay operation - Figure 8. Solving this problem is not easy; a solution may be
the right choice to drive currents and delay times to the two relays. However, if the generator is
high power and feeder too long, the only realistic solution is to connect the generator directly to
bars station through a separate line.

Figure 8. The generator prevents proper operation of the relay line

3. DG is a cost effective route to improved power quality and reliability
DG uses, as a rule, low-power generating units (generally, less than 20 MW) located at or
in the vicinity of the consumer (user). These units are installed in order to resolve consumer
requirements, to ensure economical operation of the electrical distribution network or to satisfy
them both. Coincidentally competition in the electricity industry with the introduction of plants
'friendly' environment such as micro-turbines, fuel cells, plants photoelectric, small wind
turbines and other advanced technologies for distributed generation caused a major interest in
distributed generation, particularly for generating local ( 'on-site'). Reliability and quality of
electricity service can be improved when operating in the vicinity of the consumer and efficiency
is improved by local generation of heat and power (CHP) applications that can be used and
secondary heat from electricity production.
Distributed generation is complementary to traditional centralized generation and
distribution of electricity. It provides an answer relatively low cost of capital to increase demand
for energy, avoid installation of additional capacity transmission and distribution, power
generation locates where it is most needed and has the flexibility to deliver a network in the
vicinity of the consumer. On the other hand, there is a social demand for cheaper energy, less
polluting, safe and reliable for all partners, including the consumers, suppliers, manufacturers
and policy makers. Distributed generation, including the RES represents a promising approach
for achieving these requirements.
4. Benefits of DG

Customer Benefits
- reliability of energy supply industry in general;
- DG Energy Technologies selects the right solution at the right location and food distribution
where there is in some locations;
- DG can provide efficiencies for applications on site by avoiding waste line;
- flexibility operation for energy savings
- promotes energy sources as fossil forms of energy are high efficiency and near zero emissions;
- customers can choose according to your preferences and needs energy;
- are small, they have high performance and flexible fuel.

Supplier Benefits
- are placed easily and quickly; modular design and it’s organic;
- they are open to markets in areas without power;
- DG does not make investments in upgrades but places a new generation.

National Benefits
- DG technologies based on renewable sources can bring environmental benefits such as reduced
emissions substrate polluting greenhouse gases;
- DG is increasing demand across its market because it offers lower costs and is reliable;
- it will bring more jobs to the labor market, increase productivity by imbunattirea reliability and quality
of electricity.
5. Distributed Generation and Power Quality

DG comprises generating units relatively small (typically less than 50 MW, although some
sources consider certain systems up to 300 MW as being considered GD) located on, or near, the site of
the consumer, to meet the specific needs of its of support the economic operation of the existing
distribution network, or for both reasons. The convergence of competition in the energy market and the
emergence of cleaner generating systems (micro-turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaics, small wind
generators and other generation technologies), has aroused great interest in distributed generation,
particularly for generating consumer. The reliability and quality of service is improved by bringing the
energy to the consumer, and the efficiency is improved by local application of CHP is used to generate
heat from electricity.
GD, including integration of renewable energy is a promising solution to address these needs.
These generators are embedded in the distribution network in different points of it, an essential
requirement being to not negatively affect the quality of energy supplied to other consumers in the
network. Point of common coupling (PCC) is the network, closest to the generator, to which other
consumers are, or could be, connect; PCC's importance is that it represents the public network GD will
cause the most disturbance.

Renewable energy distributed generation

Wind energy
Of all sources, energy from wind sources is the cheapest presenting themselves to the
limit 4-6 c / kWh after a decline of the order of 7 times compared to 1980, with a trend towards
reduction of 30% -50% in the future. Because wind energy is intermittent wind energy needs
complementary sources such as batteries, diesel generators, etc. Wind farms can be seen as some
very large virtual power plants in terms of energy distribution.
Solar power
It is the primary energy which had a significant impact on world electric energy
production .Ea can be purchased in two ways:
- Photovoltaic - different use of solar panels on office buildings or by building solar parks. In
these cases electricity requires consideration of these facilities through virtual power plants.
-Terme - Stirling engines mounted in the focal point of the mirrors to produce electricity

Cogeneration
This way we obtain power with very high efficiency of the fuel. This method usually
applied in large plants besides providing electricity and heat with an output exceeding 5kWe. It
is used in offices, large stores but also in homes. The fuels used are very important presenting a
biomass (wood, straw) and after a biological Gasification process. Because the biological
material is almost uniform dispersion resulting biomass is very good for distributed generation.
(Fuel Cells, The internal combustion engine, Stirling engine)

Hydro power
Water is energy produced by framing them or moving them. Since ancient times were
made watermills for mechanical factories or different tools. Networks using hydraulic pipes to
transport water pressure and that transmit energy mechanic. Where there is abundant water head
can be made to generate compressed air directly without moving parts. Hydropower is used
primarily to generate electricity. Broad categories include: Conventional hydroelectric, Run-of-
the-river hydroelectricity, Small hydro, Micro hydro, Conduit hydroelectricity and Pumped-
storage hydroelectricity.
Energy from Waste
It is the process by which the waste resulting from electricity and thermal energy. It is
more a process of recovery of electricity. Most processes fuel is a commodity fuel such as
methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels. There are several emerging technologies that may
produce energy from waste and fuels. Many of these technologies have the potential to produce
more electric power from the same amount of fuel than would be possible by direct combustion.
Some of them are able to efficiently convert the energy in liquid or gaseous fuels: Gasification,
Thermal depolymerization, Pyrolysis, Plasma arc gasification, Anaerobic digestion,
Fermentation and Mechanical biological treatment.

Figure. Renewable energy

Figure- The contribution of renewables in electricity generation

6. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN CONVENTIONAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

Distribution networks are generally made as passive radial configuration networks active
and reactive power flows from higher to lower levels of tension. The amount of voltage drop can
be calculated from analysis of charts.
Voltage drop is expressed:
𝑈2 = 𝑈1 + I (R + jX)
wgere I is the phasor representation of where current flowing through the feeder.

Figure-One line diagram for an illustration of the voltage drop in a distribution system.
The power supplied from the grid :
P + jQ = 𝑈2 𝐼 ∗
The current flowing through the feeder :
P – jQ
I=
𝑈2
The voltage at U2 :
P – jQ 𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄 𝑋𝑃−𝑅𝑄
𝑈2 =𝑈1 + (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)= 𝑈1 + +j
𝑈2 𝑈2 𝑈2
Thus, the voltage variation between U2 and U1
𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄 𝑋𝑃−𝑅𝑄
∆U = 𝑈1 − 𝑈2 = +j
𝑈2 𝑈2
For a small power flow, the voltage angle between U2 and U1 is small, and the voltage variation
can be approximated :
𝑅𝑃+𝑋𝑄
∆U ≈
𝑈2
If the voltage U1 is considered as the base voltage, then it can be assumed as unity.
∆U ≈ RP + XQ
7. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN DISTRIBUTION NETWORK WITH DG

In a distribution system, connection of generators means that the flow of power and
voltage profiles are affected, and the system is not passive, but active.
The power supply of the generator voltage increases and may even cause the voltage at
its connection point to be higher than the voltage at the substation. If injected power generator is
large, it can lead to distribution power flow to the transmission system. As a result, affect the
voltage and reactive power control so that proper coordination is needed equipment to fair
regulation in blood.
In coordination between the action OLTC and reactive exchanges between plants and feeders
DG is implemented in a controller, managing the distribution system.
The voltage drop in the distribution system with DG can be calculated from analysis diagram in
Figure 1
Figure 1: One line diagram for an illustration of the voltage drop in a distribution system with
DG
In Figure 1 a distributed generator is connected, where PG and QG are the generated
active and reactive power, respectively, by the DG, PL and QL are the active and reactive power
of the load respectively.
The voltage drop on the feeder can be approximated by
𝑅(𝑃𝐺 −𝑃𝐿 )+𝑋(±𝑄𝐺 −𝑄𝐿 )
∆U = 𝑈1 − 𝑈2 ≈
𝑈2
Loads consume both active (-PL) and reactive (-QL) power whereas generators always
supply active power (+PG) and may inject or draw reactive power (±QG). When a DG injects
active power into the grid the voltage drop along the feeder is decreased. But if the active power
injected by the DG is larger than the feeder load, the power direction is reversed and this flows
upward to the substation. As a consequence, the voltage at the point of connection of the
generator U2 rises above the voltage at the secondary side of the transformer U1.

8. Legal rules, regulations and requirement for Distributed Generation (DG)

The distribution system is a natural monopoly and, therefore, should be regulated and the
regulatory framework is the purpose of distribution system operators (OD). The regulations can
be based simply on cost efficiency or include network management based on performance
criteria. If regulation performance, distribution system operators need to consider when planning
DG extensions or improvements to their networks.
The main elements of the production cost for RES are investment costs, operating costs,
balancing costs and network costs. RES, owner of the equipment manufacturing has traditionally
only responsibility for investment costs, operating costs and probably some of the costs of
connecting to the network equipment.
Balancing costs, which are particularly significant when referring to wind energy were
generated by 'system'. Costs incurred by the owner of RES have traditionally been compensated
with a grant and a fixed price for electricity ('feed-in-tariff'), independently of the real market
value of energy electricity. However, investment decisions of an investor are not related to the
actual value of electricity in the area under consideration.
Fiscal measures can be used in various ways to support renewables. First, the investment
can be stimulated by several special tax measures. Secondly, manufacturers and consumers can
get a tax exemption if they produce or use energy renewable. This is usually based on exemption
per kWh.
If enough consumers are willing to pay a higher price for energy produced from RES, it
is no longer necessary support scheme. This is called 'cut price' ('green pricing') and is an option
offered by energy providers (public services, brokers and disunited) that allow their clients to
support investments in renewable energy technologies. By 'green rooms' customers pay a
premium to participants electricity bill to cover the additional costs ('Extra') of renewable energy.
9.Conclusion

DG interconnection and integration into existing power systems is complex technical

challenges assuming power quality and protection, load balancing operational challenges,
regulatory challenges of equitable access and political challenges that encourage action to
achieve company objectives. However, the benefits of DG, such as the ability to make use of
RES (Renewable Energy Sources), many of which are naturally dispersed, do be essential to their
wide acceptance in the relatively near future.