MODULE 5

FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA

(Part 2 – Incompressible flow)
 Recall: MEB
FRICTIONAL LOSSES ∆𝑷 𝜶∆𝒖𝟐
+
𝒈
+ ∆𝒛 = −𝒉𝒇 + 𝑾𝒔
𝝆 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄

 SKIN FRICTION
 If any surface is in contact with a fluid and a relative motion exists between
the surface and the fluid, the transfer of momentum results in tangential
stress or drag on the surface that is oriented parallel to the direction of
flow. This phenomenon is called skin friction.
 Skin friction is generated in unseparated boundary layers; e.g. flow in
straight pipes
 Evaluated as a function of the pipe length
 FORM FRICTION (minor losses)
 Whenever a fluid changes path to pass around a solid body set in the flow
path, the fluid accelerates and significant friction losses consequently occurs
because of acceleration and deceleration of the fluid. This phenomenon is
called drag or form friction.
 Form friction is energy dissipation that occurs when boundary layer
separates and form wakes; e.g. flow through valves, fittings, and obstruction
such as sudden contraction or enlargement of cross section.
 Evaluated in terms of loss coefficient, K, defined as the no of velocity head
lost due to fluid passing thru valves, fittings or any obstruction.
Frictional Losses
 Alternately, form friction can also be estimated by
“equivalent length” of a pipe that has the same
effect as the valve, fittings or any obstruction (-P)
 Equiv length is evaluated as LT = Ls+ Le
 Le –is the equivalent length of fittings or valves
 Ls – is the total length of str pipe
 Lt –is the total equiv length of pipes and fittings
Equivalent Length of some fittings and valves

Type Le/D
Angle valve (open) 160
Gate valve (open) 6.5
Square 90 elbow 70
Sudden contraction, 4:1 15
Sudden contraction, 2:1 11
Sudden enlargement, 1:4 30
Sudden enlargement, 1:2 20

Relationship is
 Relation bet skin friction & wall shear:

 for a definite length:

 FRICTION FACTOR, f

 Friction factor is a dimensionless wall stress defined as

the ratio of the wall stress to the inertial force per unit
area that would result from the impingement of a stream
of density and velocity normally against a wall.
 f = ratio of wall shear stress to product of  & vel head
 Fanning friction factor is given by

 Relations between skin friction parameters:

LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES ( Newtonian Fluids)

 The average velocity, is given by

 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation:

 Friction factor:
 TURBULENT FLOW

 For flow thru closed channels, turbulence does not exist

permanently at the boundary between solid & flowing
fluid.
 Velocity at interface = 0
 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION : Fig 5.3/M&S represents
typical distribution for a Newtonian fluid moving in
turbulent flow in smooth pipe at Re = 10,000.
 AVERAGE VELOCITY : Eq 5.47/M&S
Fig 5.3: Velocity distribution in pipe
EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS:

 In turbulent flow, rough pipe leads to a larger

friction factor than a smooth pipe does.
 Fig. 5.9 shows several kinds of roughness, k
 K represents the height of a single unit of roughness
called “roughness parameter”
 The friction factor, f = (Re, K/D)
 Note: roughness has no appreciable effect on f for
laminar flow unless k is large
Roughness Effect
Effect of roughness
Friction calculation
 If a rough pipe is smoothed, f is reduced. When further
smoothing brings about no further reduction in f for a given Re,
the tube is said to be hydraulically smooth.
 Eq 5.50 refers to a hydraulically smooth tube.
 THE FRICTION FACTOR CHART:

 Fanning Friction Factor

 Fig 5.10 /M&S {Fig 6-9/HB}
 log-log plot of f vs Re for different roughness, K/D
 Also, the following empirical equations apply for
turbulent flow
 Note: 4fFANNING = fDARCY
 {e.g., for laminar flow, fFANNING = 16/Re ; fDARCY = 64/Re)
Fig 5.10/Friction factor chart
Fig 5.10/Friction factor chart
Handbook (Fanning friction factor)
 EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
(McCabe; for turbulent, smooth tubes)

 Re @ 50,000 to 1x106 5.53

 Re @ 3,000 to 3x106 5.54

• For steel pipe and other rough pipes, f becomes independent of Re for values
greater than 106 . An empirical equation for this region is

• For different flow regimes in a given system, the variation of pressure drop with
flow rate can be found from eq (5.9), (5.22), (5.53), and (5.55), to give:
Source: Handbook/8th ed
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
(McCabe; for turbulent, smooth tubes)
 (**SIMILAR EQUATIONS FOUND IN THE
HANDBOOK)
Nonisothermal flow

For nonisothermal flow of liquids, f may be

• increased if the liquid is being cooled or
• decreased if the liquid is being heated, because of the
effect of temperature on viscosity near the wall.

 EFFECT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON f:

 When fluid is heated/cooled by pipe wall, velocity field is
modified by T gradients created w/in the fluid.
ASSUMPTIONS:
 Re is calculated based on a fluid T (T equal to “mean
bulk T”) i.e. Tb = (Tin+Tout)/2
EFFECT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON f:
 Viscous dissipation
• Frictional or viscous dissipation of mechanical energy can result in heating a
fluid, especially highly viscous liquids in small channels.
• For incompressible flow under adiabatic conditions thru channels of constant
cross section, the energy from the decrease in pressure Ps is converted to
thermal energy by the relation
FRICTION FACTOR, f, in flow thru channels of
NONCIRCULAR S:

 D is taken as DH = hydraulic diameter = 4 rH

 where rH = hydraulic radius = S/Lp
S = free area; Lp = wetted perimeter of channel
FRICTION FACTOR, f, in flow thru channels of
NONCIRCULAR S:

 SQUARE CONDUIT
DH  a where a  dimension of one side

 RECTANGULAR
2 ab
DH  where a, b are dimensions of sides
ab
HB
 FRICTION FROM CHANGES IN VELOCITY OR
DIRECTION:

 Whenever u is changed (either in direction or magnitude) by

change in direction of pipe size, f is generated in addition to skin
friction from flow thru straight pipe.
 FRICTION LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN EXPANSION OF S:
 FRICTION FROM CHANGES IN VELOCITY OR
DIRECTION:

 FRICTION LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION OF S:

 When S is suddenly reduced, a jet is formed, w/c flows into
stagnant fluid in the smaller S. The jet 1st contracts then expands to
fill smaller S, & downstream from point of contraction the normal v
distribution is reestablished.
 The S of min. area at w/c the jet changes from a contraction to an
expansion is called the vena contracta.
FRICTION LOSS IN FITTINGS & VALVES:

 where kf = loss factor for fittings/valves

 [values are presented in Table 5.1/p.119]

 NOTE: form friction may also be evaluated using

equivalent lengths instead of loss coefficient factors
(refer to handbook for detailed discussion)
Loss coefficients/MS
HB
HB
 PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES
 Pipe materials are chosen on the basis of
 strength to withstand internal pressures
 strength to withstand external loads from backfill and traffic, smoothness,
corrosion resistance, chemical inertness, cost and other factors.
 Major types:
 Ductile cast iron: long lived, strong, impervious, heavy, scour resistant, but
costly
 Asbestos cement: immune to electrolysis and corrosion, light in weight, but
weak structurally
 Concrete: durable, water tight, low maintenance, smooth interior
 Vitrified clay: resistant to corrosion, acids, scour, and erosion
 Steel: high strength, ductile, shock resistant, very smooth interior, but
susceptible to corrosion
 Plastic: chemically inert, corrosion resistant, very smooth, lightweight, low cost
 Copper and brass: used primarily for water, condensate, and refrigerant
lines; in some cases, easily bent by hand, good thermal conductivity
PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES
 The required wall thickness of a pipe is proportional
to the pressure that the pipe must carry.
 The actual dimensions of some pipes coincide with
their nominal dimensions. However, some pipes and
tubing are called out by a nominal diameter that
has nothing to do with the internal diameter of the
pipe.
 In some cases, the nominal size does not coincide
with the external diameter.
Problem scenario

CASE 1: Known flow rate and diameter, unknown pressure

drop
Solution: straightforward

CASE 2: Known diameter and pressure drop, unknown

flow rate
Solution: iterative/trial and error approach

CASE 3: Known flow rate and pressure drop, unknown

diameter
Solution: iterative/trial and error approach
 Examples: MSH
Example 5.2/MSH
Crude oil having a SG of 0.93 and a viscosity of 4 cP is draining by gravity from the bottom
of a tank. The depth of liquid above the drawoff connection in the tank is 6m. The line from
the drawoff is 3-in Schedule 40 pipe. Its length is 45 m, and it contains one ell and two gate
valves. The oil discharges into the atmosphere 9m below the drawoff connection of the
tank. What flow rate, in cubic meters per hour, can be expected through the line?

Problem 5.6/MSH
A liquid with SG of 2.6 and viscosity of 2.0 cP flows through a smooth pipe of unknown
diameter, resulting in a pressure drop of 0.0183 psi for 1.73 mi. What is the pipe diameter in
inches if the mass rate of flow is 7000 lb/h?

Problem 5.9/MSH
Water at 60F is pumped from a reservoir to the top of a mountain through a 6-in Schedule
120 pipe at an average velocity of 12 fps. The pipe discharges into the atmosphere at a
level 3000 ft above the level in the reservoir. The pipeline itself is 4500 ft long. If the overall
efficiency of the pump and the motor driving it is 70% and the cost of electric energy to the
motor is 4 cents per kilowatt hour, what is the hourly energy cost for pumping this water?
Examples: Geankoplis
 PS#2 (due date: July 18, Monday)

1. MSH 5.8
2. MSH 5.12
3. MSH 5.13
4. MSH 5.18
5. Foust 20.5
6. Foust 20.12
7. Geankoplis 2.7-8
8. Geankoplis 2.7-9
9. Geankoplis 2.7-14
10. Geankoplis 2.7-15
Note: Pls read the references for detailed discussions of fluid flow phenomena
MSH/7e
MSH/7e
Principles of Unit Operations/2ed by Foust, et.al.
Transport Processes and Unit
Operations, 3e, Geankoplis