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Traditional field crops
Planning and preparation

Cropping systems
Land preparation for cropping
Summary of land preparation recommendations for the reference
crops
Seed selection
Planting
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Land preparation for cropping

On small farms, land preparation methods for the reference crops may or may
not involve actual tillage (working the soil with hoes, plows or other equipment)
or seedbed shaping (leveling land or making raised beds or ridges).
Methods Involving No Tillage or Seedbed Shaping
Under conditions of shifting cultivation, low management or steeply sloping or
rocky soils, land is often cleared by simply slashing and/or burning, followed by
making the seed holes with a planting stick or hoe. No attempt is made to
actually till the soil or to form a specific type of seedbed.
• Slash, burn and plant: This method is most suitable for sandy soils which
are naturally loose or for other soils that are maintained in good filth (a
loose, crumbly condition) by a lengthy vegetative fallow which produces soil
humus. It may be the only feasible method for rocky soils or those with
pronounced slopes where tillage would accelerate erosion.
• Slash, mulch and plant: This method is suited to the same conditions. The
vegetation is slashed down or killed with a herbicide and then left on the
surface to form a mulch (a protective covering). The seeds may be planted in
the ground or may even be scattered over the ground before slashing. The
mulch is valuable for erosion and weed control, conserving soil moisture, and
keeping soil temperatures more uniform. The International Institute for
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has found this system very beneficial for maize
and cowpeas and has developed two types of handoperated planters capable
of planting seed through a mulch.
There is nothing basically wrong with either of these methods. However, in some
cases, tillage and seedbed shaping may have some important advantages:
• Soils prone to drainage problems due to topography, soil conditions or high
rainfall usually require the use of raised beds or ridges for successful crop
production (except for rice).
• If liming is needed to correct excessive soil acidity, it must be mixed
thoroughly into the top 15-20 cm of soil to be fully effective.
• Chemical fertilizers containing phosphorous and potassium and organic
fertilizers should be incorporated several centimeters into the soil for
maximum effectiveness. Under non-tillage methods, they can still be
correctly applied using a hoe or machete, but it is definitely more work.
Chemical fertilizers containing phosphorus are best applied to the reference
crops in a band 7.5-10 cm deep that parallels the crop 5-6 cm to one side. A
fertilizer furrow can be made easily with a wooden plow or other
animaldrawn implement.
• Most animal- or tractor-drawn planters require a tilled seedbed for
successful operation. There are exceptions, however, such as the IITA
planters.
Methods Involving Tillage
Tillage refers to the use of animal- or tractor-drawn equipment or hand tools to
work the soil in preparation for planting and has five main purposes:
• To break up and loosen the soil to favor seed germination, seedling
emergence, and root growth
• To chop up and/or bury the previous crop's residues so they will not
interfere with the new crop
• To control weeds (an ideal seedbed is completely weedfree at planting time)
• To incorporate (mix into the soil) liming materials and fertilizers (chemical
or organic)
• To shape the kind of seedbed most suited to the particular soil, climate, and
crop (i.e., raised beds, ridges, flat seedbeds).
Primary tillage refers to the initial breaking up of the soil by plowing or using a
heavy-duty digging hoe. Depth of plowing usually ranges from about 15-30 cm,
depending on the type of plow used, its traction source, and the soil. For
example, an ox-drawn wooden plow will not have the penetration ability of a
tractor-drawn moldboard plow, especially in heavy soils. Secondary tillage
refers to any additional tillage operations between plowing and planting to
break up clods, cut up trash, kill weeds, and smooth out the seedbed. It is most
commonly performed with some type of harrow (an implement used to
pulverize and smooth the soil).
Secondary tillage is shallower than planting and requires less power. Ridging
and bedding (forming ridges or beds for raised planting) also can be included in
this category.
Reference Crop Tillage Systems
The reference crops share the same basic tillage methods, but these vary with
the particular soil, the available tillage equipment, and the need for
incorporating lime or fertilizer. There are three basic tillage systems, each with
advantages and disadvantages:
• Plow (or hoe)/Plant: If plowed at the right moisture level, some soils
(especially loams and sands) may be suitable for sowing with a planter
without any secondary tillage to break up the clods. Most soils can be hand-
planted after plowing, since the farmer has better control over seed depth
than when a mechanical planter is used. He can also push any big clods aside
or break them up while walking down the row. This type of rough seedbed is
actually very advantageous in terms of weed control since the cloddy surface
discourages their growth. It also favors moisture penetration and reduces
runoff. On the other hand, if bedding or ridging is needed, a better job can
be done if any large clods are first broken up by harrowing (cultivating).
• Plow/Harrow/Plant: This is the most common system where animal- or
tractor-drawn planters are used, unless the soil breaks up well enough under
plowing alone. If soil conditions are conducive to weed growth, the ground
should be harrowed as close to planting as possible to give the crop a head
start on the weeds.
• Minimum Tillage: Farmers with access to tractor- or animaldrawn tillage
equipment may overdo tillage, especially through repeated harrowings to
control sprouting weeds or break up clods. Killing one crop of weeds by
stirring the soil only stimulates another by moving other weed seeds closer to
the soil surface. Excessive tillage stimulates the microbial breakdown of
humus and may further destroy good soil physical condition by over-
pulverizing the soil, The machinery, animal, and foot traffic also compact the
soil, impairing root growth and drainage. Tillage is seldom excessive when
hand tools are used to prepare ground for the reference crops, because of the
amount of labor it would involve. Slash-and-burn and slash-and-mulch
methods fall under zero tillage, as do methods using specially adapted
mechanical planters to sow seed into unplowed ground (common in the U.S.).
The plow/plant system described above or plowing and planting in one
tractor pass are examples of minimum tillage. The savings on equipment
wear and fuel are advantages where tractors are used.
Tillage and Seedbed Fineness
The degree to which clods need to be broken up depends mainly on seed type
and seed size and whether hand planting or mechanical planting will be used.
1. Seed type: Maize, millet and sorghum are monocots with seedlings that
break through the soil with a spike-like tip. This reduces the need for a clod-
free seedbed. Peanuts and other pulses are dicots, and emerge in a blunt
form, dragging the two seed leaves with them; they tend to have more
trouble with clods.
2. Seed size: Large seeds have more strength than small seeds, enabling
young shoots to push more effectively through rough seedbeds. Maize seeds
are large monocots, which gives them especially good clod handling ability.
Peanuts and the other pulses are large-seeded, but this advantage is partly
offset, since they are dicots. The small seeds of sorghum and especially millet
are less powerful, but this is offset by the fact that they are monocots. Small
seeds require shallower planting than larger ones, and cloddy soils do not
allow this type of precision if mechanical planters are used.
3. Farmers can usually get by with cloddier seedbeds when hand planting.
They have more control over planting depth and can push any large clods
aside. In addition, it is very common under hand planting to sow several
seeds per hole, which gives them a better chance of breating through.
Clayey soils, especially those low in humus, are usually in a cloddier condition
after plowing than loamy or sandy ones. Most plowing takes place at the end of
the dry season, when soils are very dry, which accentuates the problem. Rainfall
following plowing may significantly reduce clod problems on some soils by
breaking up the clods.
Tillage Depth
A plowing depth in the 15-20 cm range is usually adequate, and there is seldom
any advantage in going deeper. In fact, shallower plowing is often recommended
for low rainfall areas like the Sahel to conserve moisture.
In some areas, tractor-drawn sub-soilers (long narrow shanks that penetrate
down to 60 cm) are used in an attempt to break up deep hardpans (compacted
layers). Results are fair to poor, depending on the type of hardpan; those
consisting of a dense clay layer often re-cement themselves within a short time.
About 65-80 percent of the reference crops' roots are found in the topsoil, since
this layer is more fertile (partly due to its higher organic matter content) and
less compacted than the subsoil. However, any roots that enter the subsoil can
utilize its valuable moisture reserves, making a critical difference during a
drought. Proper fertilization of the topsoil will encourage much deeper root
development. On the other hand, poor drainage and excessive acidity in the
subsoil will hinder or prevent root penetration.
Handling Crop Residues
There are three basic ways of handling the previous crop's residues (stalks,
leaves, branches) when preparing land: burning, burying and mulching:
1. Burning--This destroys the organic matter contained in the residues, but
may be the only feasible solution where suitable equipment is lacking or
where time is short.
2. Burying--chopping residues up with a disk harrow or slasher and then
plowing them under is a common practice in mechanized farming.
3. Mulching--Chopping up residues and leaving them on top of the ground
has some definite benefits such as greatly reducing soil erosion caused by
rainfall and wind as well as water losses due to evaporation. However, there
are two disadvantages to mulching which should be considered:
• Residues are left on the surface and can interfere with the operation of
equipment such as planters, plows, and cultivators which may plug up.
• Mulching is not recommended for peanuts, especially in wet regions,
since they are very susceptible to Southern stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii),
which can incubate on unburied residues from any type of plant (see page
243).
Animal versus Tractor Power: Some Considerations for the Small Farmer
In the developing countries, tractor power and its associated equipment are
mainly confined to large farms and to areas where labor costs are high. The
large investment, fuel and repair costs, and maintenance requirements all weigh
heavily against the purchase of such machinery by small farmers. Spare parts
and the necessary repair facilities are commonly lacking, meaning that a
breakdown can be disastrous. A study by ICRISAT on the economics of full-size
tractors in India showed new evidence that they significantly increase yields,
cropping intensity, timeliness or gross returns per hectare. Money can usually
be much better spent on animal traction equipment, improved seeds, fertilizers,
and other highreturn inputs.
However, there are two situations where tractor power can be justified:
• Animal-drawn equipment may not be sufficient to meet the production
needs of the intermediate farmer who has about 5-20 ha of land. In this case,
small horsepower equipment may be very suitable. The International
Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) farming systems program has
developed a 5 hp gasolinepowered multipurpose equipment unit that can
plant field crops with a two-row "punch" planter, haul 500 kg in a trailer,
and convert to a walk-behind tractor for rotary tillage, ridging, brush
slashing, and plowing rice paddies. Other types of low-horsepower units are
available from other manufacturers.
• The small farmer can sometimes benefit by hiring tractor work on an as-
needed basis during peak periods when his normal labor supply is
insufficient to meet demands.
Basic Tillage Equipment for Plowing and Harrowing
Hand Implements: Heavy duty digging hoes can be very effective for small
areas. In Kenya, for example, nearly all small holdings are prepared this way,
although an average family cannot handle much more than 0.5 ha with this
method. In a wet-dry climate, most land preparation takes place when the soil is
hard and dry, which poses added obstaces for hand tools. Some extension
services recommend that land be prepared at the end of the previous wet season
before the soil dries out. However, this is not always possible due to standing
crops.

A digging hoe and a heavy duty hoe blade.

One common type of wooden plow. Most of them have metal tips to reduce
wear.

Wooden Plow: Designs of wooden plows go back many centuries. They often are
animal drawn, and some have a metal tip. They do not invert the soil or bury
crop residues but basically make grooves through the soil. Their effectiveness
depends a lot on soil type and moisture content. The grooves they make also can
serve as seed and fertilizer furrows.
Moldboard plow: This is the ideal plow for turning under grass, green manure
crops, and heavy crop residues such as chopped-up maize stalks. It also buries
weed seeds deeper and damages perennial weeds more than other equipment.
Moldboard plows are available in animal-drawn models (usually just one plow
bottom) and tractor models (usually two to six bottoms). Depending on plow
size (width of the moldboard as viewed from the front or back) and soil
condition, they will penetrate to 15-22 cm.
Unless equipped with a spring trip device, moldboards do not handle rocky soils
well. They are not as well suited to drier areas as disk plows. They also
encounter problems in sticky clay soils and may form a plow pan (a thin
compacted layer that can hinder root growth) if used at the same depth year
after year.

A moldboard plow. The moldboard section is curved so that it turns over the
soil slice that is cut by the plowshare.
Disk Plow: Better suited than the moldboard to hard, clayey, rocky or sticky
ground, but does not bury residues as effectively. This is an advantage in drier
areas where surface residues reduce wind and water erosion and cut down
moisture evaporation. Disk plows are not recommended for peanut ground
where Southern stem rot is a problem, because surface plant residues harbor
the spores. They also will not do an effective job turning under grass sod. Disk
plows are mainly available in tractor-drawn models. Unlike moldboards plows,
they are less likely to form a plow pan if used at the same depth year after year.

A ridging plow or middlebreaker for making raised beds or ridges

Ridging Plows (Lister Plows or "middlebreakers"). These basically consist of a
double-sided moldboard that throws soil both ways. This will produce a series
of alternating furrows (trenches) and ridges when operated over a field.
Depending on the climate and soil, the crop is either planted in the furrows (in
low rainfall areas with no drainage problems) or on top of the ridges (in high
rainfall areas or those with drainage problems). Such furrow planting is
advantageous in drier areas for cereal crops, since it conserves moisture. Soil is
thrown into the row as the season progresses for weed control, and this also sets
the roots deep into the soil, where moisture is more adequate. Such furrow
planting is not recommended for peanuts and often not for beans due to
increased root rot and stem rot problems.
Rototillers (rotovators):
These are available in tractor-powered models. They throroughly pulverize the
soil and partially bury crop residues. Heavy duty models can be used for a once-
over complete tillage job. The disadvantages are that power requirements are
very high and the soil can be easily overworked with this implement. In fact,
rototillers do a far more thorough job of seedbed preparation than is needed for
the reference crops and are best used for vegetable ground.

A rototiller or rotavator. Note the revolving blades under the hood behind the
wheels.

Animal-drawn disk harrow

Disk Harrows: Disk harrows are commonly used after plowing to break up
clods, control weeds, and smooth the soil before planting. They are also used to
chop up coarse crop residues before plowing (especially if a moldboard or disk
plow will be used), but heavier models with scalloped disks (disks with large
serrations) are most effective for this purpose. Both animal and tractor-drawn
models are available but they are expensive and prone to frequent bearing
failure unless regularly greased. Large, heavy duty versions pulled by tractors
are often called Rome plows and can sometimes substitute for plowing. The
gangs of disks are offset to the direction of travel so that they cut, throw, and
loosen the top 7.5-15 cm of soil but pack down the soil immediately below that.
Repeatedly harrowing a field prior to planting can actually leave it harder than
before plowing if done when the soil is moist.
Spike-Tooth Harrows: These consist of a metal or wood frame studded with
pegs or spikes; extra weight in the form of stones or logs may be needed under
some conditions for maximum effectiveness. They are used to smooth the
seedbed and break up clods (at the right moisture content), and are especially
suited for killing small weed seedlings that may emerge before planting.
Spike-tooth harrows are made in many widths and are classified by weight and
the length of the tines. In some cases, this type of harrow can be run over the
actual crop rows from several days after planting up until the seedlings are a
few centimeters tall to control early geminating weeds or to break up any soil
crusting. Spike-tooth harrows will clog up if trash is left on the soil surface.

Two models of a spike-tooth harrow

A spring tine harrow

Spring-Tooth Harrows: These have tines made from spring steel that dig, lift,
and loosen the top 7.5-10.0 cm of soil, break up clods, and smooth out the
seedbed. Both animal and tractor-drawn models are available. They are not
suited to hard or trashy ground but handle stones well.
Field Cultivators: These are similar in appearance to chisel plows, but usually
are not as built as heavy. They can be used for initial tillage on ground with
little surface residue, but are mainly used as a secondary tillage implement for
weed control. Most models are designed for tractor use.
(Additional information on the use of animal-drawn equipment can be found in
Animal Traction, U.S. Peace Corps Appropriate Technologies for Development
Manual Series #12, by Peter Watson, 1981.)

Beans grown on raised beds

Seedbed Shape
The best seedbed shape depends more on the climate and soil involved than on
the particular reference crop.
Flat Seedbeds: This shape is used where soil moisture is adequate for crop
growth and where there are no drainage problems. Under such conditions, the
reference crops are often planted on a flat seedbed and then "hilled up" with
soil (soil is moved into the crop row and mounded around the plants) as the
season progresses to control in-row weeds, provide support, and improve
drainage. In warm, humid areas where stem rot is a problem, this practice is
not recommended for peanuts.
Raised Seedbeds (Ridge or Bed Planting): Under heavy rainfall and/ or poor
drainage, the reference crops are usually planted on ridges or raised beds to
keep them from getting "wet feet". This also helps minimize soil-borne disease
problems like root rots and helps control water erosion if the ridges are run on
the contour. Water infiltration is encouraged and runoff minimized. In addition,
ridge planting makes for easier entry of digging equipment when peanuts are
harvested. Finally, more topsoil is provided for crop growth under this system.
The main disadvantage of ridge planting is the accelerated loss of soil moisture
from the mounds--normally not a serious problem in wet areas except during
dry spells. In drier areas mulching would be beneficial. In regions where the wet
season starts out slow, the crops may be flatplanted and then later "hilled up"
as the rains increase. Furrow irrigation always requires ridge planting.
Furrow Planting: Under conditions of low rainfall or poor soil water-holding
capacity (i.e., sandy soils), crops are often planted in the furrow bottom between
ridges where soil moisture is greater. Soil can then be thrown into the furrows to
control in-row weeds and improve drainage (if rainfall picks up) as crop growth
progresses. This type of sunken planting is not recommended for peanuts in
moist areas, since it encourages stem and root rots, particularly if soil is thrown
into the row.
Note: Local farmers usually have good seedbed experience, so beware of
tampering with time-tested methods without first considering all the angles and
running some trials.
Equipment for Seedbed Shaping
Flat seedbeds usually require no special efforts beyond plowing and possibly
harrowing. If additional land leveling is required, the small farmer without
access to special tractor-drawn leveling equipment can do a satisfactory job
dragging a heavy board hitched to two draft animals over the field.
Ridges or beds can be made with digging hoes, special ridging plows (see tillage
equipment section) or tractor-drawn disk-bedders (rolling disks arranged at
opposing angles to throw soil up to form beds). The crop can be planted either
on top of the ridges or in the furrows, depending on the soil and climate.