Climatology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

"Climate Research" redirects here. For the journal of that name, see Climate Research (journal).

Climatology is the scientific study of the climate.

Atmospheric sciences

Atmospheric physics
Atmospheric dynamics (category)

Atmospheric chemistry (category)

Meteorology

Weather (category) · (portal)

 Tropical cyclone (category)

Climatology

Climate (category)
Climate change (category)

Global warming (category) · (portal)

Glossaries

Glossary of meteorology · Glossary of tropical cyclone

terms · Glossary of tornado terms · Glossary of climate change

 v
 t
 e

Climatology (from Greek κλίμα, klima, "place, zone"; and -λογία, -logia) or climate science is the
scientific study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of
time.[1] This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield
of physical geography, which is one of the Earth sciences. Climatology now includes aspects
of oceanography and biogeochemistry.
The main methods employed by climatologists is the analysis of observations and modelling the
physical laws that determine the climate. The main topics of research are the study of climate
variability, mechanisms of climate changes and modern climate change. Basic knowledge of climate
can be used within shorter term weather forecasting, for instance about climatic cycles such as
the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO), the North Atlantic
oscillation (NAO), the Arctic oscillation (AO), the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), and the
Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO).
Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and
climate system to projections of future climate. Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere
over a period of time, while climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to
indefinite period of time.[2]

Contents

 1History
 2Subfields
 3Methods
o 3.1Climate data
o 3.2Models
 4Topics of research
 o 4.1Climatological processes
o 4.2Climate classification
o 4.3Climate variability
o 4.4Climatic change
 5Differences with meteorology
 6Use in weather forecasting
 7See also
 8References
o 8.1Books
 9External links

History[edit]
The Greeks began the formal study of climate; in fact the word climate is derived from the Greek
word klima, meaning "slope," referring to the slope or inclination of the Earth's axis. Arguably the
most influential classic text on climate was On Airs, Water and Places[3] written
by Hippocrates around 400 BCE. This work commented on the effect of climate on human health
and cultural differences between Asia and Europe.[3] This idea that climate controls which countries
excel depending on their climate, or climatic determinism, remained influential throughout
history.[3] Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) inferred that climates naturally shifted over an
enormous span of time, after observing petrified bamboos found underground near Yanzhou
(modern day Yan'an, Shaanxi province), a dry-climate area unsuitable for the growth of bamboo.[4]
The invention of the thermometer and the barometer during the Scientific Revolution allowed for
systematic recordkeeping, that began as early as 1640 in England.[3] Early climate researchers
include Edmund Halley, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the
southern hemisphere. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) first mapped the course of the Gulf Stream for
use in sending mail from the United States to Europe. Francis Galton (1822–1911) invented the
term anticyclone.[5] Helmut Landsberg (1906–1985) fostered the use of statistical analysis in
climatology, which led to its evolution into a physical science.
In the early 20th century, climatology was mostly focused on the description of regional climates.
This descriptive climatology was mainly an applied science, giving farmers and other interested
people statistics about what the normal weather was and how big chances were of extreme
events.[6] To do this, climatologists had to define a climate normal, or an average of weather and
weather extremes over a period of typically 30 years.[7]
Around the middle of the 20th century, many assumptions in meteorology and climatology
considered climate to be roughly constant. While scientists knew of past climate change such as
the ice ages, the concept of climate as unchanging was useful in the development of a general
theory of what determines climate. This started to change in the decades that followed, and while
the history of climate change science started earlier, climate change only became one of the mean
topics of study for climatologists in the seventies and onward.[8]
Subfields[edit]

Map of the average temperature over 30 years. Data sets formed from the long-term average of historical
weather parameters are sometimes called a "climatology".

Various subfields of climatology study different aspects of the climate. There are different
categorizations of the fields in climatology. The American Meteorological Society for instance
identifies descriptive climatology, scientific climatology and applied climatology as the three
subcategories of climatology, a categorization based on the complexity and the purpose of the
research.[9] Applied climatologists apply their expertise to different industries such
as manufacturing and agriculture.[10]
Paleoclimatology seeks to reconstruct and understand past climates by examining records such
as ice cores and tree rings (dendroclimatology). Paleotempestology uses these same records to
help determine hurricane frequency over millennia. Historical climatology is the study of climate as
related to human history and thus focuses only on the last few thousand years.
Boundary-layer climatology is preoccupied with exchanges in water, energy and momentum near the
surface.[11] Further identified subfields are physical climatology, dynamic climatology, tornado
climatology, regional climatology, bioclimatology, applied climatology, and synoptic climatology. The
study of the hydrological cycle at long time scales (hydroclimatology) is further subdivided within the
subfields of snow climatology and hail climatology.[9]

Methods[edit]
The study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years,
such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. Knowledge of the atmosphere
and its dynamics is also embodied in models, either statistical or mathematical, which help by
integrating different observations and testing how they fit together. Modeling is used for
understanding past, present and potential future climates.
Climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes
which govern climate. Climate is governed by physical laws which can be expressed as differential
equations. These equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained
by using numerical methods to create global climate models. Climate is sometimes modeled as
a stochastic process but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are
otherwise too complicated to analyze.
Climate data[edit]
The collection of long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology
deals with the aggregate data that meteorology has collected. As measuring technology changes
over time, records of data cannot be compared directly. As cities are generally warmer than the
surrounding areas, urbanization has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this urban heat
island effect.[12]
Models[edit]
Main article: Climate models

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans,
land surface, and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the
weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very
nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the
earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any
unbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth. Most climate models include
the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. These models predict an upward
trend in the surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher
latitudes.
Models can range from relatively simple to complex:

 A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages
outgoing energy
 this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
 Coupled atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full
equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.
 Earth system models further include the biosphere.

Topics of research[edit]
Topics that climatologists study fall roughly into three categories: climate variability, mechanisms of
climate change and modern climate change.[13]
Climatological processes[edit]
Various factors impact the average state of the atmosphere at a particular location. For instance,
midlatitudes will have a pronounced seasonal cycle in temperature whereas tropical regions show
little variation in temperature over the year.[14] Another major control in climate is continentality: the
distance to major water bodies such as oceans. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so that land
close to it has typically has mild winters and moderate summers.[15] The atmosphere interacts with
other spheres of the climate system, with winds generating ocean currents that transport heat
around the globe.[16]
Climate classification[edit]
Classification is an important aspect of many sciences as a tool of simplifying complicated
processes. Different climate classifications have been developed over the centuries, with the first
ones in Ancient Greece. How climates are classified depends on what the application is. A wind
energy producer will require different information (wind) in the classification than somebody
interested in agriculture, for who precipitation and temperature are more important.[17] The most
widely used classification, the Köppen climate classification, was developed in the late nineteenth
century and is based on vegatation. It uses monthly temperature and precipitation data.[18]
Climate variability[edit]

El Niño impacts

There are different modes of variability: recurring patterns of temperature or other climate variables.
They are quantified with different indices. Much in the way the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which
is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations in the stock
market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate
indices are generally devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each
index typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very
nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into a generalized, overall description of the
atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which impact the global climate
system.
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific
Ocean responsible for most of the global variability in temperature,[16] and has a cycle between two
and seven years.[19] The North Atlantic oscillation is a mode of variability that is mainly contained to
the lower atmosphere, the troposphere. The layer of atmosphere above, the stratosphere is also
capable of creating its own variability, most importantly in the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO),
which has a cycle of approximately 30-60 days. The interdecadal pacific oscillation can create
changes in the pacific ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales.
Climatic change[edit]
Climate change occurs when changes in Earth's climate system result in new weather patterns that
remain in place for an extended period of time. This length of time can be as short as a few decades
to as long as millions of years. The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The
climate system also gives off energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy,
and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When
the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the
climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth
experiences cooling. Climate change also influences the average sea level.
Modern climate change is driven by the human emissions of greenhouse gas from the burning of
fossil fuel driving up global mean surface temperatures. Rising temperatures are only one aspect of
modern climate change though, with includes observed changes in precipitation, storm tracks and
cloudiness. Warmer temperatures are driving further changes in the climate system, such as
the widespread melt of glaciers, sea level rise and shifts in flora and fauna.[citation needed]
Differences with meteorology[edit]
In contrast to meteorology, which focuses on short term weather systems lasting up to a few weeks,
climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather
events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation
to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global
– and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers
the past and can help predict future climate change.
Phenomena of climatological interest include the atmospheric boundary layer, circulation
patterns, heat transfer (radiative, convective and latent), interactions between the atmosphere and
the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation, land use and topography), and the chemical
and physical composition of the atmosphere.

Use in weather forecasting[edit]

Main article: Weather forecasting

A more complicated way of making a forecast, the analog technique requires remembering a
previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a
difficult technique to use is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event in the future.[20] Some call
this type of forecasting pattern recognition, which remains a useful method of observing rainfall over
data voids such as oceans with knowledge of how satellite imagery relates to precipitation rates over
land,[21] as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution in the future. A variation
on this theme is used in Medium Range forecasting, which is known as teleconnections, when you
use systems in other locations to help pin down the location of another system within the
surrounding regime.[22] One method of using teleconnections are by using climate indices such as
ENSO-related phenomena.[23]

See also[edit]
 Biogeochemistry
 Climate as complex networks
 Climatic geomorphology
 Geophysics
 Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
 Urban climatology

References[edit]
1. ^ Climate Prediction Center. Climate Glossary. Archived2006-10-06 at the Wayback
Machine Retrieved on November 23, 2006.
2. ^ "What is Climatology?". drought.unl.edu. Retrieved 2017-02-27.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Heymann, Matthias (2010). "The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge". Wiley
Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 1 (4): 581–597. doi:10.1002/wcc.61. ISSN 1757-7799.
4. ^ A. J. Bowden; Cynthia V. Burek; C. V. Burek; Richard Wilding (2005). History of palaeobotany:
selected essays. Geological Society. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-86239-174-1. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
5. ^ Life Stories. Francis Galton. Retrieved on April 19, 2007.
6. ^ Weart, Spencer (2008). "Climatology as a Profession". history.aip.org. American Institute of Physics.
Retrieved 2019-10-25.
7. ^ Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999, pp. 4-5.
 8. ^ Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999, pp. 5-6.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b Collins, Jennifer M. (25 October 2018). "Climatology - Geography - Oxford
Bibliographies - obo". doi:10.1093/obo/9780199874002-0096. Retrieved 2019-10-25.
10. ^ Wang & Gillies 2012, p. IX.
11. ^ Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 6
12. ^ Rohli & Vega 2011, p. 8.
13. ^ Oblack, Rachelle; McDougal, Holt; weather. (3 July 2019). "How Climatology Is Different From
Meteorology". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2019-10-23.
14. ^ Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 25.
15. ^ Rohli & Vega 2018.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 54.
17. ^ Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 159.
18. ^ Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 160.
19. ^ Climate Prediction Center (December 19, 2005). "ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña
typically occur?". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Archived from the original on August
27, 2009. Retrieved July 26, 2009.
20. ^ Other Forecasting Methods: climatology, analogue and numerical weather prediction. Retrieved on
February 16, 2006.
21. ^ Kenneth C. Allen. Pattern Recognition Techniques Applied to the NASA-ACTS Order-Wire
Problem. Archived 2007-07-14 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on February 16, 2007.
22. ^ Weather Associates, Inc. The Role of Teleconnections & Ensemble Forecasting in Extended- to
Medium-Range Forecasting. Retrieved on February 16, 2007.
23. ^ Thinkquest.org. Teleconnections: Linking El Niño with Other Places. Archived 2007-04-20 at
the Wayback MachineRetrieved on February 16, 2007.
Books[edit]

 Robinson, Peter J. Robinson; Henderson-Sellers, Ann (1999). Contemporary Climatology.

Harlow, England: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0582276314.
 Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018). Climatology (fourth ed.). Jones & Bartlett
Learning. ISBN 9781284126563.
 Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2011). Climatology (second ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
 Wang, Shih-Yu; Gillies, Robert R., eds. (2012). Modern Climatology. Rijeka, Croatia:
InTech. ISBN 978-953-51-0095-9.

External links[edit]
 Climate Science Special Report – U.S. Global Change Research Program
 KNMI Climate Explorer The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute's Climate Explorer
graphs climatological relationships of spatial and temporal data.
 Climatology as a Profession Amer. Inst. of Physics account of the history of the discipline of
climatology in the 20th century

hide

Physical geography
eogeography

8-8

7044

768

91
Categories:
 Climatology
 Physical geography
 Climate and weather statistics
 Natural environment
Navigation menu

 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
Search
Go
 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
 Donate to Wikipedia
 Wikipedia store
Interaction
 Help
 About Wikipedia
 Community portal
 Recent changes
 Contact page
Tools
 What links here
 Related changes
 Upload file
 Special pages
 Permanent link
 Page information
 Wikidata item
 Cite this page
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
 Wikiversity
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
 Deutsch
 Ελληνικά
 Español
 हिन्दी
 Bahasa Indonesia
 Русский
 Shqip
 中文
72 more
Edit links

 This page was last edited on 28 October 2019, at 09:49 (UTC).

 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site,
you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,
a non-profit organization.
 Privacy policy

 About Wikipedia

 Disclaimers

 Contact Wikipedia

 Developers

 Cookie statement

 Mobile view