NGE 202 CLIMATOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Define to Climatology

Climatology (from Greek κλίμα, klima, "place, zone"; and -λογία, -logia) or Climate Science is the
Scientific study of Climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of
time, usually for 30 years and more.. Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940), a German Meteorologist and
Climatologist is best known for his delineation and mapping of the climatic regions of the world. He
played a major role in the advancement of Climatology and Meteorology for more than 70 years.
Climatology is the study of climate and how it changes over time. This science helps people better
understand the atmospheric conditions that cause weather patterns and temperature changes over time.
This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical
geography, which is one of the Earth sciences. Climatology is important since it helps determine future
climate expectations. Using latitude, one can determine the likelihood of snow and hail reaching the
surface.

Climatology is different from meteorology and can be divided into different areas of study. Further
identified subfields are physical climatology, dynamic climatology, tornado climatology, regional
climatology, bioclimatology, and synoptic climatology. The study of the hydrological cycle over long
time scales (hydro-climatology) is further subdivided into the subfields of snow climatology and hail
climatology. Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry. Climatology is
the science of studying the average atmospheric conditions of a region in long-term perspective.
Climatology plays a leading role in the survival and longevity of all life forms on the planet earth.
Climatology is the science, which studies the nature of climate, the causes and interpretation of its spatial
variations and its association with the elements of natural environment and human activities. Just as
climate itself encompasses many elements, including temperature, precipitation and wind conditions, the
climate system includes five basic components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.

Instruments used in Climatology. Here are some examples of equipment used by Climatologists on Earth
and other planets.

 Barometer. Barometers are used to measure the pressure in the atmosphere.

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  Hygrometer. A device that measures the humidity in the local atmosphere.
 Thermometer. Used to measure Maximum and Minimum air temperatures spatially.

Climatology is important since it helps determine future climate expectations. Using latitude, one can
determine the likelihood of snow and hail reaching the surface. You can also be able to identify the
thermal energy from the sun that is accessible to a region. There are many elements that make up both
the weather and the climate of a geographical location. The most significant of these elements are
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, solar irradiance, humidity, precipitation, condensation and
topography. Climatology is important since it helps determine future climate expectations. Through the
use of latitude, one can determine the likelihood of snow and hail reaching the surface. You can also be
able to identify the thermal energy from the sun that is accessible to a region.

climate is an important element because it indicates the atmospheric condition of heat, moisture and
circulation; it plays a dominant role in shaping vegetation and soil; and it ultimately affects all forms of
life, as a result of the very definition of the word, which is a scientific prediction, based on evidentiary
Climatology as the name suggests is the study of climate, or in other words, the study of the average
weather conditions over a given period of time. It is considered to be one of the 'atmospheric sciences'
which are often summed under 'earth sciences'. Meteorology is concerned with short term weather
patterns. The factors affecting the climate of a place are referred to as controls and are latitude, altitude,
pressure and wind system, and distance from the sea, ocean currents, and relief features. The variations
in air temperature control the pressure and wind system of a place.

There are approximately five main climate types on Earth:

 Tropical.
 Dry.
 Temperate.
 Continental.
 Polar.
Factors affecting climate

Many factors affect climate around the world as they vary in different parts globally. They include:

 Distance from the Sea/continentally

 Ocean Currents
 Direction of Prevailing Winds
 Shape of the Land (known as 'relief' or 'topography')
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  Distance from the Equator/Latitude
 the El Niño Phenomenon
 Aspects
 ITCZ
 Man’s Activities

It is now widely accepted that human activity is also affecting climate, and that the impact is not the
same everywhere. For example, changes appear to be happening faster near the poles than in many other
places. In this tutorial, we will look at some of these factors in more detail.

1. Distance from the Sea (Continentally)

The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form
when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre of continents are subject to a
large range of temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the
sea evaporates before it reaches the centre of the land mass.

Distance from the sea (Continentally) affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter
than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre
of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures. Mountains affect climate by blocking wind
and receiving more rainfall than low-lying areas. As air is forced over higher ground, it cools, causing
moisture to condense and fall as rain. The higher a location is above sea level, the colder it is. Large
bodies of water such as oceans, seas, and large lakes affect the climate of an area. Water heats and cools
more slowly than land. Therefore, in the summer, the coastal regions will stay cooler and in winter
warmer. A more moderate climate with a smaller temperature range is created.

2. Ocean Currents

Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the equator
toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents regulate global
climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface. Ocean
currents can increase or reduce temperatures. Currents affect climate by moving cold and warm water
around the globe. In general, how do currents carry water? Currents carry warm water from the tropics
toward the poles and bring cold water back toward the equator. ... Since cold air holds less moisture than
warm air, these currents bring cool, dry weather. The main ocean current that affects the UK is the Gulf
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Stream. The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing from the Gulf of Mexico,
northeast along the U.S coast, and from there to the British Isles.

The Gulf of Mexico has higher air temperatures than Britain, as it is closer to the equator. This means
that the air coming from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm. However, the air is also quite moist
as it travels over the Atlantic Ocean. This is one reason why Britain often receives wet weather. The
Gulf Stream keeps the west coast of Europe free from ice in the winter and, in the summer, warmer than
other places of a similar latitude.

3. Direction of Prevailing Winds

Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland areas. Winds that
blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm and dry. Winds that blow to Britain
from inland areas such as central Europe will be cold and dry in winter. Britain's prevailing (i.e. most
frequently experienced) winds come from a southwesterly direction over the Atlantic.

These winds are cool in the summer, mild in the winter and tend to bring wet weather.
There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in the Southern
Hemisphere. These are average conditions and do not essentially reveal conditions on a particular day.
As seasons change, the wind patterns shift north or south. So does the intertropical convergence zone,
which moves back and forth across the Equator. Sailors called this zone the doldrums because its winds
are normally weak.

Prevailing wind - The prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction a location experiences. In
Britain, the prevailing wind is from the South West, which brings warm, moist air from the Atlantic
Ocean. This contributes to the frequent rainfall. When prevailing winds blow over land areas it can
contribute to creating desert climates. There are 3 major wind patterns found in the Northern Hemisphere
and also 3 in the Southern Hemisphere. These are average conditions and do not essentially reveal
conditions on a particular day. As seasons change, the wind patterns shift north or south. So does the
intertropical convergence zone, which moves back and forth across the Equator. Sailors called this zone
the doldrums because its winds are normally weak.

As the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes changes in the angle of which sun’s rays contact
the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at different latitudes. Polar Regions experience the

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greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in
the summer. .

4. Distance from the Equator

The distance from the Equator affects the climate of places and regions since temperatures drop with
distance from the Equator due to the curvature of the earth. At the poles, energy from the sun reaches
the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than at the Equator.
As a result, more energy is lost and temperatures are cooler compared to the areas around the Equator.
Again, the poles usually experience the greatest difference between summer and winter day lengths: in
the summer, there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely, the poles also experience
a period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, day lengths vary little at the equator.

Latitude or distance from the equator –As already explained, in the areas closer to the poles, sunlight
has a larger area of atmosphere to pass through and the sun is at a lower angle in the sky. Explained in
terms of latitude and angles of the sun’s rays, as the Earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis causes
changes in the angle of which sun’s rays contact the earth and hence changes the daylight hours at
different latitudes. Polar regions experience the greatest variation, with long periods of limited or no
sunlight in winter and up to 24 hours of daylight in the summer.

5. Topography ('relief').

The Topography of an area can greatly influence climate of that area. The most important climatic control
is latitude. Latitude affects the temperature of a place. The places situated at higher altitudes which are
far from equator receive lesser sunlight and places which are located towards the equator receives more
sunlight and are hotter than the places located at higher latitudes. Climate. Mountain ranges are natural
barriers to air movement. The Topography of an area can greatly influence our climate. Mountain ranges
are natural barriers to air movement. In California, winds off the Pacific Ocean carry moisture-laden air
toward the coast. The Coastal Range allows for some condensation and light precipitation. Inland, the
taller Sierra Nevada range rings more significant precipitation in the air. On the western slopes of the
Sierra Nevada, sinking air warms from compression, clouds evaporate, and dry conditions prevail.

In California, winds off the Pacific Ocean carry moisture-laden air toward the coast. The Coastal Range
allows for some condensation and light precipitation. Inland, the taller Sierra Nevada range rings more

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significant precipitation in the air. On the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, sinking air warms from
compression, clouds evaporate, and dry conditions prevail. Climate can be affected by mountains.
Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it
cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall. The higher the place is above sea level the
colder it will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to
absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains all year round.

6. Altitude

Normally, climatic conditions become colder as altitude increases. “Life zones” on a high mountain
reflect the changes, plants at the base are the same as those in surrounding countryside, but no trees at
all can grow above the timberline. Snow crowns the highest elevations. Altitude refers to the height
above sea level. Temperature decreases with increasing height above sea level. This makes the higher
areas to have lower temperatures than the lower areas. A rise in altitude causes a fall in temperature and
a cooling effect which causes condensation. Altitude or height above sea level - Locations at a higher
altitude have colder temperatures. Temperature usually decreases by 1°C for every 100 metres in altitude.
This means that coastal locations tend to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places inland
at the same latitude and altitude. The Earth's surface absorbs most of the heat from the sun. This is
because there is less pressure higher in the atmosphere, allowing the air molecules to spread out more.
So, the higher one travels into the troposphere, the lower the temperature becomes.

In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with altitude. The reason is that the troposphere's
gases absorb very little of the incoming solar radiation. Instead, the ground absorbs this radiation and
then heats the tropospheric air by conduction and convection. Pressure with Height: pressure decreases
with increasing altitude. The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the total
weight of the air above a unit area at any elevation. At higher elevations, there are fewer air molecules
above a given surface than a similar surface at lower levels. As you go to higher altitudes, there are less
air molecules pushing down on you (lower pressure). When the pressure of a gas decreases, the
temperature also decreases (the reverse is also true – when the gas pressure increases, the temperature
increases).

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7. How does ITCZ influence climate?

Earth's deep-tropical climate is dominated by the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a narrow band
of rising air and intense precipitation. Precipitation in the ITCZ is driven by moisture convergence
associated with the northerly and southerly trade winds that collide near the equator. A It moves north
in the Northern Hemisphere summer and south in the Northern Hemisphere winter. Therefore, the ITCZ
is responsible for the wet and dry seasons in the tropics. ... Further away from the equator, the two wet
seasons merge into one, and the climate becomes more monsoonal, with one wet season and one dry
season. Seasonal shifts in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations,
resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher
latitudes. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) lies in the equatorial trough, a permanent low-
pressure feature where surface trade winds, laden with heat and moisture, converge to form a zone of
increased convection, cloudiness, and precipitation.

How does the location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) change over time? The ITCZ
migrates south of the equator in Northern Hemisphere winter and north of the equator in Northern
Hemisphere summer. ... Equatorial regions receive more direct sunlight than other areas. The ITCZ
(Intertropical Convergence Zone) play important role in the global circulation system and also known as
the Equatorial Convergence Zone or Intertropical Front. It is a basically low-pressure belt encircling
Earth near the Equator. It is a zone of convergence where the trade winds meet. The ITCZ is a global
belt of low pressure produced by the convergence of air coming out of the high-pressure belt to the north
and the high-pressure belt to the south.

The ITCZ has a mean position north of the equator because there is much more landmass in the Northern
Hemisphere as compared to the Southern Hemisphere. The ITCZ is an area of low atmospheric pressure
that forms where the Northeast Trade Winds meet the Southeast Trade Winds near (actually just north
of) the earth's equator. As these winds converge, moist air is forced upward, forming one portion of the
Hadley cell. The ITCZ is an area of low atmospheric pressure that forms where the Northeast Trade
Winds meet the Southeast Trade Winds near (actually just north of) the earth's equator. As these winds
converge, moist air is forced upward, forming one portion of the Hadley cell. This means that, in summer,
air over land is heated more than air over ocean, which shifts the ITCZ toward land regions. In regions
where continents lie north or south of the equator, as in Asia and Australia, this causes the ITCZ to shift
farther off the equator during the summer season.
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8. Aspect
The aspect of a slope can make very significant influences on its local climate (microclimate). ...
Similarly, in the northern hemisphere a south-facing slope (more open to sunlight and warm winds) will
therefore generally be warmer and drier due to higher levels of evapotranspiration than a north-facing
slope. Aspect: This relates to the direction in which a place is facing. Aspect only really affects local
climate, not global ones. In the Northern Hemisphere, south facing slopes receive far more sunlight than
north facing ones. ... Distance from the Sea: The sea can have a great influence over climates in maritime
regions. The south facing slopes in the Northern hemisphere are warmer than the slopes facing the North
since they never receive direct sunshine while the slopes facing south do. The slopes facing north are
always experiencing low temperature than the one facing south. In the Southern hemisphere, the slopes
facing north are warmer than ones facing south. This is because the sun is found within the tropics all
around the year. Windward slope receive more rainfall than the leeward slopes.

9. Surface of the Earth

Just look at any globe or a world map showing land cover, and you will see another important factor
which has a influence on climate: the surface of the Earth. The amount of sunlight that is absorbed or
reflected by the surface determines how much atmospheric heating occurs. Darker areas, such as heavily
vegetated regions, tend to be good absorbers; lighter areas, such as snow and ice-covered regions, tend
to be good reflectors. The ocean absorbs and loses heat more slowly than land. Its waters gradually
release heat into the atmosphere, which then distributes heat around the globe

10. El Niño Phenomenon

El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts and floods in countries
around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the irregular warming of surface water in the Pacific. El Nino
is essentially caused by the interaction between the surface layers of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the
atmosphere over it. The water is warmer due to the trade winds reversing direction or becoming less
intense. In contrast El Nino can also bring flooding and heavy rainfall in other areas. The warmer water
pumps energy and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns. The
phenomenon has caused tornadoes in Florida, smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil. El Niño is
Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes about the time of the celebration of the birth of the Christ
Child. The cold counterpart to El Niño is known as La Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also brings
with it weather extremes.
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Human-driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in
vegetation patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the reflectivity of the Earth surface
(albedo), emissions from burning forests, urban heat island effects and changes in the natural water cycle.
There is overwhelming evidence that human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, are leading to
increased levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn amplify
the natural greenhouse effect, causing the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, and land surface.
El Nino, along with La Nina, are complex weather patterns caused by variations in ocean temperatures
in the Equatorial Pacific. Both El Nino and La Nina are opposites of what is called El Nino-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The term describes the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific. El Nino is the warm phase while La Nina is the cold
phase. These variations from normal surface temperatures have huge impacts on weather and climate
around the world. These phases usually can last between nine to 12 months but can last for years. They
occur usually every two to seven years.

Causes and effects of El Nino

El Nino is essentially caused by the interaction between the surface layers of the tropical Pacific Ocean
and the atmosphere over it. The water is warmer due to the trade winds reversing direction or becoming
less intense. These changes impact on aquatic species and sea birds as the changing temperatures impact
on plankton and seaweed and so fish and seabirds migrate to other regions or die due to not having
enough food to live on. It also creates huge changes in weather patterns and can lead to droughts, often
in Indonesia, Philippines and Australia. In contrast, El Nino can also bring flooding and heavy rainfall
in other areas. In extreme conditions that can bring hurricanes, typhoons and very cold weather. El Nino
is essentially caused by the interaction between the surface layers of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the
atmosphere over it. The water is warmer due to the trade winds reversing direction or becoming less
intense. ... In contrast El Nino can also bring flooding and heavy rainfall in other areas.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES INFLUENCE CLIMATES OF REGIONS

Human-driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in
vegetation patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the reflectivity of the Earth surface
(albedo), emissions from burning forests, urban heat island effects and changes in the natural water cycle.
There is overwhelming evidence that human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, are leading to
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increased levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn amplify
the natural greenhouse effect, causing rise in temperatures at the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, and land
surface.

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

 Burning fossil fuels leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations.

 Farming and forestry — including land use change via agriculture and livestock.
 Cement manufacture.
 Aerosols — chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Human activities—mostly burning of coal and other fossil fuels, but also cement production,
deforestation and other landscape changes—emitted roughly 40 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide in
2015. Some greenhouse gases, like methane, are produced through agricultural practices, including
livestock manure. Others, like CO2, largely result from natural processes like respiration and from the
burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas.

Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the amounts
of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes
from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. Plant growth,
forest fires, volcanoes, and other natural processes affect the amounts of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The amounts of greenhouse gases then affect temperatures on Earth.
Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, are altering the climate system. Human-
driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in vegetation
patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the reflectivity of the Earth surface (albedo),
emissions from burning forests, urban heat island effects and changes in the natural.

Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various synthetic
chemicals. Carbon dioxide is widely reported as the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas
because it currently accounts for the greatest portion of the warming associated with human activities-
water cycle. In terms of overall range and extents of impacts, however, it is my opinion that burning of
fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, etc..) is the single largest source of air pollutants. These fuels cause smog,
acid rain, soot and particulates increases, greenhouse gas emissions, and dispersal of some heavy metal

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contaminants. Carbon dioxide is responsible for 53% of the level of global warming. It is the result of
processes such as fuel use, deforestation and production of cement and other materials.

1. Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches
the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by
greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The absorbed energy warms
the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at around
33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural
gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is the
enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of the Earth. Top five negative impact
humans have had on the environment: deforestation, desertification, global warming, invasive species,
and overharvesting

Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels,
and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and
undrinkable water. Environmental change is a change or disturbance of the environment most often
caused by human influences and natural ecological processes. Environmental changes include various
factors, such as natural disasters, human interferences, or animal interaction. Global warming is arguably
the greatest cause of impact on the environment. The largest of causes emanating through CO₂ levels
from respiration to more detrimental causes like burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

The highest level of CO₂ in recorded history before 1950 was about 300 parts per million. Human
activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the amounts of
greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from
the burning fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. There is overwhelming
evidence that human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, are leading to increased levels of carbon

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dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn amplify the natural greenhouse
effect, causing the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, and land surface to rise.

Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water.
Human impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments, biodiversity, and
other resources. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are production.
Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil
fuels, and deforestation, technology, agriculture etc,as a result of human activities but applies broadly to
all major human impacts on the environment.

2. Technology

Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for
several reasons. First, the purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise “improve”
upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity. At the same time, the myriad of processes in nature
have been optimized, and are continually adjusted, by evolution: any disturbance of these natural
processes by technology is likely to result in negative environmental consequences. Second, the
conservation of mass principle and the first law of thermodynamics (i.e., conservation of energy) dictate
that whenever material resources or energy are moved around or manipulated by technology,
environmental consequences are inescapable. Third, according to the second law of thermodynamics,
order can be increased within a system (such as the human economy) only by increasing disorder or
entropy outside the system (i.e., the environment). Thus, technologies can create “order” in the human
economy (i.e., order as manifested in buildings, factories, transportation networks, communication
systems, etc.) only at the expense of increasing “disorder” in the environment. According to a number
of studies, increased entropy is likely to be correlated to negative environmental impacts.

3. Agriculture

The environmental impact of agriculture can vary widely—ultimately, environmental impact of

agriculture depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. There are two types of
indicators of environmental impact: means-based, which is based on the farmer’s production methods,
and effect-based, which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions
to the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater, which

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is effected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to
groundwater would be effect-based.

The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air,
animal and soil diversity, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are related to
agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil
degradation, and waste.

Irrigation

The environmental impact of irrigation includes the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as
a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and
downstream of the irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing
to the installation and operation of the scheme. An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river
and distributes it over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that:

 the downstream river discharge is reduced

 the evaporation in the scheme is increased
 the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased
 the level of the water table rises
 the drainage flow is increased

4. Land Loss and Soil Erosion

Lal and Stewart estimated global loss of agricultural land by degradation and abandonment at 12 million
hectares per year.[1] In contrast, according to Scherr, GLASOD (Global Assessment of Human-Induced
Soil Degradation, under the UN Environment Programme) estimated that 6 million hectares of
agricultural land per year had been lost to soil degradation since the mid-1940s, and she noted that this
magnitude is similar to earlier estimates by Dudal and by Rozanov et al. [2] Such losses are attributable
not only to soil erosion, but also to salinization, loss of nutrients and organic matter, acidification,
compaction, water logging and subsidence. Human-induced land degradation tends to be particularly
serious in dry regions.

5. Energy Industry

The environmental impact of energy harvesting and consumption is diverse. In the real world,
consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change. However, little change
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is being made in many parts of the world. If the peak oil theory proves true, more explorations of viable
alternative energy sources could minimize the environmental impact of human energy demands, leading
to a more ‘environmentally friend’ resource consumption. In recent years, there has been a trend towards
the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. Rapidly advancing technologies
can achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards
better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial
ecology.

6. Invasive Species

Introductions of species, particularly plants into new areas, by whatever means and for whatever reasons
have brought about major and permanent changes to the environment over large areas. Examples include
the introduction of Caulerpa taxifolia into the Mediterranean, the introduction of oat species into the
California grasslands, and the introduction of privet, kudzu, and purple loosestrife to North America.
Rats, cats, and goats have radically altered biodiversity in many islands. Additionally, introductions have
resulted in genetic changes to native fauna where interbreeding has taken place, as with buffalo with
domestic cattle, and wolves with domestic dogs.

7. Transport

The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy, and burns most
of the world’s petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a
significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the
fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest contributor to global
warming.

Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicles emission;
however, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles, and more use of each
vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been
studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a
transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport, and increase transport electrification
and energy efficiency.

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Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented
urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transportation
emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth’s air quality,
acid rain, smog and climate change.

HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

We have to learn about the important services the ecosystem provides (including biogeochemical cycles
and food) as well as the top five negative impact humans have had on the environment: deforestation,
desertification, global warming, invasive species, and overharvesting. Human activities contribute to
climate change by causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols
(small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels,
which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. Plant growth, forest fires, volcanoes, and other
natural processes affect the amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The amounts of greenhouse gases then affect temperatures on Earth. Human activities, particularly the
combustion of fossil fuels, are altering the climate system. Human-driven changes in land use and land
cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in vegetation patterns also alter the climate, resulting
in changes to the reflectivity of the Earth surface (albedo), emissions from burning forests, urban heat
island effects and changes in the natural.

Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various synthetic
chemicals. Carbon dioxide is widely reported as the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas
because it currently accounts for the greatest portion of the warming associated with human activities-
water cycle. In terms of overall range and extents of impacts, however, it is my opinion that burning of
fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, etc..) is the single largest source of air pollutants. These fuels cause smog,
acid rain, soot and particulates increases, greenhouse gas emissions, and dispersal of some heavy metal
contaminants. Carbon dioxide is responsible for 53% of the level of global warming. It is the result of
processes such as fuel use, deforestation and production of cement and other materials.

COMPOSITION OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

An atmosphere is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body that is
held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is
subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low or the gaseous envelope of a celestial
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body (such as a planet) b : the whole mass of air surrounding the earth. 2 : the air of a locality the stuffy
atmosphere of the waiting room. 3: a surrounding influence or environment an atmosphere of hostility.
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers or ‘spheres’. Each layer is characterized by a different
gradient of the temperature as a function of altitude. The structure of the atmosphere dictates the way
the atmosphere behaves and controls how weather develops near the surface of the earth.

(a)THE ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE

The atmosphere consists of 4 layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
Figure A shows the placement of the different layers of the atmosphere and how the temperature
changes with height as you go from the ground up to space.

1. Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This is the layer where we live and where weather
happens. The troposphere (between 0 and about 15 kilometers) is the first layer above the Earth’s
surface and contains approximately 85 to 90 % of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is characterized
by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. The troposphere’s thermal profile is largely the
result of the heating of the Earth’s surface by incoming solar radiation. Heat is then transferred up
through the troposphere by a combination of convective and turbulent transfer. Weather occurs in the
Earth’s troposphere. Temperature in this layer generally decreases with height. The boundary between
the stratosphere and the troposphere is called the tropopause. The jet stream sits at this level and it
marks the highest point that weather can occur. The height of the troposphere varies with location, being
higher over warmer areas and lower over colder areas.

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Figure 3: The Layers of the Atmosphere (Image from the Comet Program)

2. The troposphere

Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. This is the layer where we live and where weather
happens. The troposphere (between 0 and about 15 kilometers) is the first layer above the Earth’s
surface and contains approximately 85 to 90 % of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is characterized
by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude. The troposphere’s thermal profile is largely the
result of the heating of the Earth’s surface by incoming solar radiation. Heat is then transferred up
through the troposphere by a combination of convective and turbulent transfer. Weather occurs in the
Earth’s troposphere. Temperature in this layer generally decreases with height. The boundary between
the stratosphere and the troposphere is called the tropopause. The jet stream sits at this level and it
marks the highest point that weather can occur. The height of the troposphere varies with location, being
higher over warmer areas and lower over colder areas.

3. Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. In the (between approximately 15 and 50 km) the
temperature rises as a function of increasing height. his warming is the result of the direct absorption of
solar radiation by the ozone layer, thereby preventing a large part of harmful ultraviolet radiation from

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the sun to reach the Earth’s surface. The ozone layer is warm because it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) rays
from the sun In this layer the temperature increases with height. This is because the stratosphere
houses the ozone layer..

4. The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. T The mesosphere is the next layer of the
atmosphere (from 50 to 90 km), characterized by temperatures that decrease the further up one goes to
an average of -90°C. A lot of meteors burn up in this layer while entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The
temperature decreases with height here just like it does in the troposphere. This layer also contains ratios
of nitrogen and oxygen similar to the troposphere, except the concentrations are 1000 times less and
there is little water vapor there, so the air is too thin for weather to occur.

5. The thermosphere: is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. In this layer the temperature increases
with height because it is being directly heated by the sun. Thereafter the thermosphere takes over where
temperatures increases steadily with altitude. It is the layer of the atmosphere which is first exposed to
the Sun’s radiation. The thermosphere also includes the ionosphere, a region of the atmosphere that is
filled with charged particles, where especially the auroras occur.

6. Exosphere: There eleven most abundant gases found in the Earth's lower atmosphere by volume. Of
the gases listed, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are
extremely important to the health of the Earth's biosphere. There eleven most abundant gases found in
the Earth's lower atmosphere by volume. Of the gases listed, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are extremely important to the health of the Earth's
biosphere. The upper limit of Earth’s atmosphere is where the atmosphere merges into space.

(b)ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
Nitrogen and oxygen are the main components of the atmosphere by volume. Together these two gases
make up approximately 99% of the dry atmosphere. Both of these gases have very important
associations with life. Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere and deposited at the Earth's surface
mainly by specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria, and by way of lightning through precipitation. The
addition of this nitrogen to the Earth's surface soils and various water bodies supplies much needed
nutrition for plant growth. Nitrogen returns to the atmosphere primarily through biomass combustion
and denitrification.

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Oxygen is exchanged between the atmosphere and life through the processes of photosynthesis and
respiration. Photosynthesis produces oxygen when carbon dioxide and water are chemically converted
into glucose with the help of sunlight. Respiration is a the opposite process of photosynthesis. In
respiration, oxygen is combined with glucose to chemically release energy for metabolism. The
products of this reaction are water and carbon dioxide.

The next most abundant gas is water vapor. Water vapor varies in concentration in the atmosphere both
spatially and temporally. The highest concentrations of water vapor are found near the equator over the
oceans and tropical rain forests. Cold polar areas and subtropical continental deserts are locations where
the volume of water vapor can approach zero percent.

Water vapor has several very important functional roles on our planet:

 It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through latent heat energy exchange.
 The condensation of water vapor creates precipitation that falls to the Earth's surface providing
needed fresh water for plants and animals.
 It helps warm the Earth's atmosphere through the greenhouse effect

Read more about the following gases

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide, Methane, Rare (inert) gases

FACTORS INFLUENCING GLOBAL CLIMATE

A few fundamental processes determine what happens in the global climate including incoming solar
radiation, characteristics of the earth's surface, the atmosphere's ability to retain heat, and the reflectivity
of the atmosphere and the earth's surface. Human changes in land use and land cover have changed
Earth's reflectivity. Processes such as deforestation, reforestation, desertification, and urbanization often
contribute to changes in climate in the places they occur. These effects may be significant regionally,
but are smaller when averaged over the entire globe. Does climate change have natural causes? The
Earth's climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate system, such as changes
in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earth's orbit around the Sun. These include latitude, elevation,
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nearby water, ocean currents, topography, vegetation, and prevailing winds. The global climate system
and any changes that occur within it also influence local climate. These processes are discussed below:

1. Incoming solar radiation

Earth's climate depends on the delicate balance between incoming solar radiation, outgoing thermal
radiation and the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Even small changes in these parameters can affect
climate. Around 30 percent of the solar energy that strikes Earth is reflected back into space. Incoming
solar radiation relates to climate because, the more solar radiation, the hotter it will get. When energy
trapped in the atmosphere warms the land, ocean and air. ... Land and water absorb most of the energy
and Earth's surface warms up the warm surface transfer heat to the air. As Wein's law explains, the sun's
high temperature emits solar radiation of mostly shorter wavelengths. This incoming solar radiation may
be scattered, reflected, or absorbed. Reflection of solar radiation occurs when the radiation is sent directly
backward from a surface.

Once energy from the Sun gets to Earth, several things can happen to it:

 Energy can be scattered or absorbed by aerosols in the atmosphere.

 Short wavelengths are absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere.
 Clouds may act to either reflect energy out to space or absorb energy, trapping it in the
atmosphere.

The atmosphere and the surface of the Earth together absorb 71 percent of incoming solar radiation, so
together; they must radiate that much energy back to space for the planet's average temperature to remain
stable. The incoming solar radiation is known as insolation. The amount of solar energy reaching the
Earth is 70 percent. Ice and water on the ground affect incoming solar radiation by reflecting 4 percent
of solar radiation that reaches the surface. As solar radiation passes through the atmosphere to the surface
and back, it is reflected in varying degrees by the earth’s surface and the atmospheric substances, which
include the Greenhouse Gases. These gases are transparent to incoming solar radiation. They are also
transparent to outgoing infrared radiation, which means that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared
radiation. However, other gases in Earth’s atmosphere do absorb infrared radiation. When the sun is
directly overhead, the liquid water will absorb just about all the solar radiation striking it. This adds an
enormous amount of heat energy to the tropical oceans since the sun is high in the sky. Less solar
radiation is absorbed by ice than into water given the same sun angle. This is because, for all of the
sunlight that the Earth absorbs, an equal amount of IR radiation must travel from the Earth back to outer
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space. ... Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially water vapor, "trap" (absorb and emit) some of
this infrared radiation, and keep the earth habitably warm. The atmosphere directly absorbs about 23%
of incoming sunlight, and the remaining energy is transferred from the Earth's surface by evaporation
(25%), convection (5%), and thermal infrared radiation (a net of 5-6%).

Solar radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The equator receives the most solar radiation in a year. The difference in the amount of solar energy the
land receives causes the atmosphere to move the way it does as gamma rays. Solar Screens are one option
to significantly reduce or prevent solar heat gain and transference of solar radiation, depending on the
screen thickness chosen. Solar screens filter and block the damaging UV Rays that cause color fading
on floors, walls, artwork, and furniture.

Most of the electromagnetic radiation that comes to the earth from the sun is invisible. Only a small
portion comes as visible light. The atmosphere absorbs most of the solar radiation and much of what
reaches the earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere to become heat energy. Solar radiation
(energy) is transformed to heat energy only after it is absorbed and re-emitted by matter. Thus, terrestrial
radiation (heat energy) is the result of the earth absorbing solar radiation and then re-emitting it into the
atmosphere. It is also true that solar energy causes plants to grow. Albedo is a measure of how much
light energy is reflected off an object and how much is absorbed and turned into heat energy. The Polar
regions count on a high albedo to keep their region cold. As more of the ice melts in global warming,
more heat is absorbed by the ocean and the land mass of Greenland and Antarctica.

2. Characteristics or nature of the Earth Surface

Warm air rising from Earth's surface pushes the air mass away from the equator, and releases its moisture
as precipitation as it travels pole-ward. Areas in the tropics receive greater incident sunlight throughout
the year, which causes water to evaporate. Explanation: These effects can cause huge changes in the
temperature, precipitation, and humidity of a region. An example is when a storm encounters a mountain
range. The clouds cannot go over the mountains, so the upwind side receives plentiful rainfall while the
downwind side gets little to no rain.

3. Atmosphere’s ability to Retain Heat

: The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to retain heat: When sunlight reaches Earth's surface, it
can either be reflected back into space or absorbed by the Earth. Once absorbed, the planet releases some
of the energy back into the atmosphere as heat (also called infrared radiation). Air in the atmosphere acts
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as a fluid. The sun's radiation strikes the ground, thus warming the rocks. As the rock's temperature rises
due to conduction, heat energy is released into the atmosphere, forming a bubble of air, which is warmer
than the surrounding air. This bubble of air rises into the atmosphere.

Solar energy absorbed at Earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat. Greenhouse gases
are more complex than other gas molecules in the atmosphere, with a structure that can absorb heat.
They radiate the heat back to the Earth's surface, to another greenhouse gas molecule, or out to space.

Water vapor is the most common greenhouse gas, and the one with the greatest overall effect on
atmospheric heat retention. Take a break and ask, ‘How is Earth's atmosphere heated?’ Name the two
primary sources of heat in the atmosphere. Okay, the two primary sources of heat into the atmosphere
are the Oceans and seas and, land surfaces, which absorb solar energy in large amounts and release the
same as heat energy into the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere is a gaseous medium, convection is the
most significant mechanism of heat transfer. Heat gained by the layers of air at or near the earth's surface
from radiation or conduction is usually transferred to the upper atmospheric layers by the process of
convection.

There are some gases in the atmosphere, which trap the heat escaping from the Earth and stop it from
travelling back into space. These gases are called greenhouse gases. The glass in a greenhouse has a
similar effect on the Sun's rays and so it is called the Greenhouse Effect. Conduction, radiation and
convection all play a role in moving heat between Earth's surface and the atmosphere. Since air is a poor
conductor, most energy transfer by conduction occurs right near Earth's surface. During the day, sunlight
heats the ground, which in turn heats the air directly above it via conduction.

Greenhouse gases do not let “heat” in or out. They absorb certain frequencies of infrared radiation
coming in as well as going out. Greenhouse gases then absorb much of the infrared radiation that the
Earth's surface radiates back to space. Carbon Dioxide: By far the predominant gas is carbon dioxide,
making up 95.9 percent of the atmosphere's volume. The next four most abundant gases are Argon,
Nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide.

Human activities—mostly burning of coal and other fossil fuels together with cement production,
deforestation and other landscape changes—emitted roughly 40 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide in
2015. Gases in Earth's atmosphere include:
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  Nitrogen — 78 percent.
 Oxygen — 21 percent.
 Argon — 0.93 percent.
 Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent.
 Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as water vapor.

The Sun and the weather. The energy that the Earth receives from the Sun is the basic cause of our
changing weather. Solar heat warms the huge air masses that comprise large and small weather systems.
However, at higher altitudes, the atmosphere reacts strongly to changes in solar activity. Global warming
is an aspect of climate change, referring to the long-term rise of the planet's temperatures. It is caused by
increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly from human activities such as
burning fossil fuels, deforestation and farming. Radiation from the warmed upper atmosphere, along
with a small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates out to space. Most of the emitted longwave
radiation warms the lower atmosphere, which in turn warms our planet's surface.

4. Reflectivity of the Atmosphere

Variations in the sun's energy reaching Earth. Changes in the reflectivity of Earth's atmosphere and
surface. Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by Earth's
atmosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth above the air layer. Its condition
affects our climate, which is the pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure,
wind, precipitation, ultraviolet light, and other climate variables that occur over long periods. These
varying rates of absorption and reflection can affect temperature. ... This means that as the ice expands,
more solar radiation is reflected to space and less is absorbed by the surface causing temperatures to
decrease. When it reaches the Earth, some are reflected back to space by clouds, some are absorbed by
the atmosphere, and some are absorbed at the Earth's surface. However, since the Earth is much cooler
than the Sun, its radiating energy is much weaker (long wavelength) infrared energy. The atmosphere
is important for many reasons! One reason is that the earth's atmosphere acts as an insulating layer that
protects the earth's surface from the intense light and heat of the sun. ... The atmosphere is also important
because it contains oxygen, which we and other living organisms breathe.

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5. The Earth- Solar System Nexus

On the surface, the greatest factor affecting Earth is sunlight. Sun provides energy for living organisms,
and it drives our planet's weather and climate by creating temperature gradients in the atmosphere and
oceans. The Earth's climate is influenced by many factors, including solar radiation, wind, and ocean
currents. Researchers try to integrate all of these influencing variables into their models. Many of the
processes involved are now well understood. When the global temperature changes, the changes in
climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly
than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome
regions change faster than do their cores. The interaction between the Earth’s climate and its surface is
a two-way process that we address in two subtopics: Regional climate change: Impact on Earth’s surface
2. Earth’s surface: Influencing atmosphere and c

WEATHER AND CLIMATE PARAMETERS

MEASUREMENT OF CLIMATE AND WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

This article throws light upon the eight elements of climate measured by weather instruments. The
elements are: 1. Rainfall 2. Pressure 3. Temperature 4. Humidity 5. Winds 6. Sunshine 7. Clouds 8. Other
Elements Pertaining to Visibility.

1. Precipitation: This is any type of water that forms in the Earth's atmosphere and then drops onto the
surface of the Earth. Water vapor, droplets of water suspended in the air, builds up in the Earth's
atmosphere. Water vapor in the atmosphere is visible as clouds and fog. Water vapor collects with other
materials, such as dust, in clouds. Precipitation condenses, or forms, around these tiny pieces of material,
called cloud condensation nuclei. Clouds eventually get too full of water vapor, and the precipitation
turns into a liquid (rain) or a solid (snow). Precipitation is part of the water cycle. Precipitation falls to
the ground as snow and rain. It eventually evaporates and rises back into the atmosphere as a gas. In
clouds, it turns back into liquid or solid water, and it falls to Earth again. People rely on precipitation for
fresh water to drink, bathe, and irrigate crops for food. The most common types of precipitation are rain,
hail, and snow.

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2. Rain: Rain is precipitation that falls to the surface of the Earth as water droplets. Raindrops form
around microscopic cloud condensation nuclei, such as a particle of dust or a molecule of pollution. Rain
that falls from clouds but freezes before it reaches the ground is called sleet or ice pellets. Even though
cartoon pictures of raindrops look like tears, real raindrops are actually spherical.

3. Hail: Forms in cold storm clouds. It forms when very cold-water droplets freeze, or turn solid, as
soon as they touch things like dust or dirt. The storm blows the hailstones into the upper part of the cloud.
More frozen water droplets are added to the hailstone before it falls. Unlike sleet, which is liquid when
it forms and freezes as it falls to Earth, hail falls as a stone of solid ice. Hailstones are usually the size of
small rocks, but they can get as large as 15 centimeters (6 inches) across and weigh more than a pound.

4. Snow: Snow is precipitation that falls in the form of ice crystals. Hail is also ice, but hailstones are
just collections of frozen water droplets. Snow has a complex structure. The ice crystals are formed
individually in clouds, but when they fall, they stick together in clusters of snowflakes. Snowfall happens
when many individual snowflakes fall from the clouds. Unlike a hail storm, snowfall is usually calm.
Hailstones are hard, while snowflakes are soft. Snowflakes develop different patterns, depending on the
temperature and humidity of the air.

TYPES OF RAINFALL

There are three main types of rainfall commonly experienced locally:.

1. Relief Rainfall

This type of rainfall is common in places with mountains and sea. Relief rainfall frequently occurs near
mountains beside the sea. The moisture-laden wind blows in from the sea because the wind meets a high
mountain and hence it is forced to rise upwards. At the height, it is cooled and then the cloud is formed.

This saturated cloud with water vapor begins to precipitate on the side of the mountain facing the sea.
This front side of the mountain is called the windward side. The cloud mostly precipitates on the
windward side of the mountain. Meanwhile, the cloud meets the other side, which is called the leeward
side. Since the cloud has already lost most of its moisture so it rains very little there.

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This makes leeward sides of a mountain very little rains. There is a much more moist climate on the
windward sides of slopes. On the other hand, there is a drier, sheltered climate on the leeward side. This
rainfall is common in Hawaii, Sierra Nevada, and the Andes.

2. Convectional Rainfall

It occurs frequently on hot days usually giving cumulus cloud and thundery showers. The sun heats the
ground which causes the air to warm and become very hot. Then the air rises upwards and becomes cool.
Then it condenses to form cumulus cloud. When this cloud is saturated, it begins to precipitate giving
heavy and thundery showers. Due to this, we get thundershowers on a hot day, as the Sun warms the air
and it rises, cools and begins to rain.

3. Frontal Rainfall

This rainfall occurs when a warm, tropical air mass comes in contact with a cold, polar air mass. It is
very common in Britain and Ireland. Because the air is in the warm front, then it rises over the cold front.
The air is cooled and so condenses to form a stratus cloud. Thus, when the stratus cloud becomes
saturated, it begins to precipitate. Other forms precipitation (snow, sleet and hail) are always measured
by a metal instrument called a rain gauge. It consists of a copper cylinder with a metal funnel either 5
inches or 8 inches in diameter, which leads into a smaller copper container or a glass bottle.

The hole in the funnel that leads down to the container is very small so that evaporation of the collected
rain is minimized. The gauge should be at least one foot above the ground and firmly fastened, to avoid
splashing. The instrument should be sited well away from tall buildings, high trees and other objects
which would shelter it.

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

The measurement of the rainfall is done by removing the funnel, emptying the rain in the container into
a graduated cylinder with a 1½-inch diameter. The reading should be done at eye-level and to an accuracy
of 0-01 inch. For greater accuracy, a special kind of taper measure as shown in Fig. 96 (b) which tapers
at the bottom may be used.

It gives an accuracy up to 0 005 inch. An inch of rainfall means the amount of water that would cover
the ground to a depth of 1 inch, provided none evaporated, drained off or percolated away. For
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meteorological recordings, a rain-day is reckoned as a period of 24 hours with at least 0 01 inch or more
rain being recorded.

If the amount exceeds 0 04 inch, it is considered a wet day. For general reckoning, the average rainfall
for Malaysia is less than 0-3 inch a day. Only a torrential downpour can account for more than an inch
of rainfall in a day. The rain gauge must be examined every day.

In temperate regions, snowfall is carefully melted by warming the funnel and then measured. For all
practical purposes 10 to 12 inches of snow may be considered as equivalent to 1 inch of rain. The daily
records of rainfall will be added at the end of the month to find the total rainfall for that month. The total
for each month is again added at the end of the year to find the annual rainfall.

The mean annual rainfall is obtained from the averages of annual rainfall taken over a long period of say
35 years. For plotting in rainfall maps, places having the same mean annual rainfall are joined by a line
called an isohyet, as shown in many atlases.

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Rainfall can also be graphically depicted as shaded rainfall columns, one for each month of the year or
in dispersal diagrams, one dot for each year for as many years as possible as in Fig. 98. The former
illustrates the monthly rainfall regime over a year and the latter shows at a glance the range of dry and
wet years for 35 years.

Based on Hydrological Cycle:

Water moves from the rivers, streams all the way up to the sky, and there forming clouds. Also, water
moves from sea to sky. All these are the part of the water cycle or hydrological cycle. This cycle makes
water move from sea to sky and sky to river. Without it, we cannot have streams, lakes not even sea.
Therefore, without this cycle, it will not be possible for humans or animals to survive at all. Here are
some stages of this cycle:

 The cycle begins at sea, where water is warmed by the sun. This causes the evaporation of
seawater. Thus, seawater turns to water vapor and then steam. This vapor rises as hot air tend to
be light.
 With the height, water vapor becomes cooler. This cooling causes the water vapor to condense
as it cannot store water droplets.
 When the vapor condenses, clouds are formed. This cloud receives more and more vapor until it
cannot store any more. After saturation of the cloud precipitation starts.
 Based on the temperature, precipitation has many forms. Thus it can include rain, hailstones,
sleet or snow.
 This rain flows into rivers and streams and these rivers and streams bring the water back to the
sea where the cycle begins again.

2. MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Air is made up of a number of mixed gases and has weight. It therefore exerts a pressure on the earth’s
surface which varies from place to place and from time to time. This force that presses on the surface of
any object can be fairly accurately measured. The instrument for measuring pressure is a barometer.
invented by the scientist Galileo and his assistant Torricelli in 1643.

The ordinary mercury barometer consists of a long glass tube, sealed at the upper and open at the lower
end. The lower end is inverted in a bowl of mercury, whose surface is exposed to the air. Variations in
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the atmospheric pressure on the mercury surface are balanced by the column of mercury in the glass
tube.

This gives the pressure of the air and can be read off quickly from the scale on the glass tube. Any liquid
could be used for this purpose, but mercury has been chosen because it is the heaviest liquid known. If
ordinary water were used, the corresponding column for normal atmospheric pressure would be 34 feet!

At sea level, the mercury column is 29.9 inches, or 760mm. If the pressure increases, the air pressing on
the surface will force up the mercury column to about 31 inches (high pressure). When the pressure
decreases, as less air presses on the surface, the mercury column will drop about 28 inches (low pressure).
As pressure is a force, it is more appropriate to measure it in terms of a unit of force.

A new unit known as the millibar (mb) was adopted by meteorological stations in 1914. A normal atmos-
pheric pressure equivalent to 14-7 lb. per square inch in weight or a reading of 29-9 inches of mercury
in the column is 1013 millibars. On maps places of equal pressure are joined by lines called isobars.

In temperate latitudes, pressure changes are very rapid in the formation of cyclones and anticyclones. In
normal circumstances, they vary from 960 mb. to 1,040 mb. Pressure readings vary with a number of
factors. A sea-level reading of 30 inches will be halved on mountainous regions of 3-5 miles above sea
level. This is because as one ascends there is less air above and so the weight, or pressure is less.

The barometer is also sensitive to gravitational forces at different latitudes. The mercury itself also
expands with an increase in temperature. Therefore, for professional meteorological work, which
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requires very accurate readings, corrections have to be made in respect of altitude, latitude and
temperature.

Since a mercury barometer that dips in liquid mercury is inconvenient for outdoor measurement, a more
portable but less accurate type known as the aneroid barometer is used. This comprises a small metal
container, with most of the air driven out to form almost a vacuum.

As there is practically no pressure at all inside the box, any increase in pressure on the outside of the box
will cause the lid to move inwards thus registering high pressure by an indicator on the revolving dial.
When there is a decrease in pressure, the lid springs outwards, registering low pressure by the indicator
.

In aero planes, a modified type of aneroid barometer called an altimeter is used. As pressure decreases
with altitude at an approximate rate of 1 inch drop in the mercury reading for every 900 feet ascent, the
altimeter gives the reading in feet for height attained instead of millibars or inches. With this, the pilot
will be able to tell the altitude of the plane above sea level. For a continues record of pressure changes,
as is sometimes required, the self-recording barogram is used.

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MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a very important element of climate and weather. The instrument for measuring
temperature is the thermometer which is a narrow glass tube filled with mercury or alcohol. It works on
the principle that mercury expands when heated and contracts when cooled.

On thermometers, temperatures are marked in one of two ways. In °F. (Fahrenheit) the freezing-point is
32°F. and the boiling-point is 212°F. For most scientific purposes the Centigrade °C. scale is preferred.
Its freezing-point is 0°C. And its boiling-point is 100°C.

As the degree of ‘hotness’ varies tremendously from one place to another, the sitting of the instrument
is very important. A temperature taken in open daylight is very high, because it measures the direct
insulation of the sun. It is better described as ‘temperature in the sun.

For agricultural purposes, earth temperatures are taken at various depths in the ground. The thermometer
is enclosed in a special glass tube and the bulb is embedded in paraffin wax, so that they are less sensitive
to abrupt temperature changes. To assess the possible damages done by ground frosts to crops in
temperate latitudes, grass temperatures are also taken. Precautions therefore must be taken to exclude
the intensity of the sun’s radiant heat.

PROCESSES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

If there is temperature difference between two systems, heat will always find a way to transfer itself from
the higher to lower system or levels. The following are the ways by which heat transfer takes place in
the atmosphere:

1. CONDUCTION

Conduction is the transfer of heat between substances that are in direct contact with each other. The
better the conductor, the more rapidly heat will be transferred. Metal is a good conduction of heat.
Conduction occurs when a substance is heated, particles will gain more energy, and vibrate more. These
molecules then bump into nearby particles and transfer some of their energy to them. This then continues
and passes the energy from the hot end down to the colder end of the substance. Conduction is the
transfer of thermal energy through direct contact.
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2. CONVECTION

Convection is the movement of heat by actual motion of matter. Thermal energy is transferred from hot
places to cold places by convection. Convection occurs when warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to
cooler areas in the liquid or gas. Cooler liquid or gas then takes the place of the warmer areas which have
risen higher. This results in a continuous circulation pattern. Boiling water - The heat passes from the
burner into the pot, heating the water at the bottom. Then, this hot water rises and cooler water moves
down to replace it, causing a circular motion. Radiator - Puts warm air out at the top and draws in cooler
air at the bottom. Another good example of convection is in the atmosphere. The earth's surface is
warmed by the sun, the warm air rises and cool air moves in.

3. RADIATION

Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat source and
the heated object as is the case with conduction and convection. Heat can be transmitted through empty
space by thermal radiation often called infrared radiation. This is a type electromagnetic radiation thats
radiation is the transfer of energy with the help of electromagnetic waves. No mass is exchanged and
no medium is required in the process of radiation. Examples of radiation is the heat from the sun, or heat
released from the filament of a light bulb.

FACTORS INFLUENCING VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE

The factors privy to temperature variability include latitude, altitude, landmass, ocean currents and
winds, slope, shelter and aspect, natural vegetation and soil.

1. Latitude:

Due to the earth’s inclination, the mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics but the sun’s rays
reach the earth at an angle outside the tropics. Temperature thus diminishes from equatorial regions to
the poles. Sun rays falls obliquely over the temperate latitudes on surface. At equatorial region heat
travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation heats up a smaller surface area;
temperature is thus high.

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The sun rays travel in temperate region travel through a longer distance and much of its heat is absorbed
by clouds, water vapor and dust particles. Its oblique ray has to heat up a large area; temperature is
therefore low.

2. Altitude:

Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth, it can be expected that places nearer
to the earth’s surface are warmer than those higher up. Thus temperature decreases with increasing height
above sea level.

This rate of decrease with altitude (lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place and from
season to season. But for all practical purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 1°F occurs with an
ascent of 0.6°C. per 100 meters. It is usually more in summer than in winter. The lapse rate is greater by
day than at night, greater on elevated highlands than on level plain

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3. Landmass or Continental Orientation

Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces, because of the higher specific heat of water.
In other words, it requires only one-third as much energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of
land by 1°F. as it does for an equal volume of water. This accounts for the warmer summers, colder
winters and greater range of temperature of continental interiors as compared with maritime districts.

4. Ocean Currents and Winds:

Both ocean currents and winds affect temperature by transporting their heat or coldness into adjacent
regions. Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream or the North Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of
Western Europe keeping their ports ice-free. Ports located in the same latitude but washed by cold
currents, such as the cold Labrador Current off north-east Canada, are frozen for several months.

Cold currents also lower the summer temperature, particularly when they are carried landwards by on-
shore winds. On the other hand, on-shore Westerlies convey the tropical warm air conditions to the
temperate coasts, especially in winter.

The Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer and warm winds in
winter and are most valuable in moderating the climatic conditions in those regions. Local winds, e.g.
Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco, Mistral, also produce marked changes in temperature.

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5. Slope, Shelter and Aspect:

A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one. Mountain ranges that
have an east- west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-facing ‘sunny slope’
than the north- facing ‘sheltered slope’.

The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine cultivation and has a more flourishing
vegetative cover. Consequently, there are more settlements and therefore, better utilized than the ‘shady
slope’.

In hilly areas a hot day followed by a calm, cloudless night during which the air cools more rapidly over
the higher ground may induce cold, heavy air to flow down the slope and accumulate at the valley bottom
pushing the warmer air upwards.

The temperature may then be lower in the valley than higher up as the slopes. A reversal of the lapse
rate has taken place. This is called temperature inversion.

6. Natural Vegetation and Soil:

There is a definite difference in temperature between forested regions and open ground. The thick foliage
of the West Africa jungle cuts off much of the in-coming insolation and in many places sunlight never
reaches the ground.

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It is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of open spaces
in corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose water by evapotranspiration so that the air above is
cooled. Relative humidity increases and mist and fog may form.

Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil differences may give
rise to slight variations in the temperature of the region. As a whole, dry soils like sands are very sensitive
to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and warm up or cool down
more slowly

IMPACT OF RISING TEMPERATURES ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

The rising temperatures will affect key areas of human activity such as: food security, economy, health
and water

1. Food Security: Major crops - wheat, rice and maize will likely see production hit by temperature
increases of 20C or more in tropical and temperate regions, although some areas may see an increase in
yields.

Wheat and maize have already seen reduced yields in many regions and overall across the world. Food
security could also be affected by changes to fisheries.

2. Economy and livelihoods: Annual global economic losses are difficult to estimate, but the impacts
associated with a 2oC temperature rise could be between 0.2-2 percent of income, and are more likely to
be higher rather than lower. Economic growth is expected to slow as a result of high temperatures,
making it harder to tackle poverty, particularly in developing countries. Food prices are expected to
increase.

3. Human Health: Up to 2050, climate change will mostly exacerbate existing health problems, and
across the 21st century will lead to increases in ill health, particularly in poorer countries. Health impacts
include more heat wave-related deaths, increased likelihood of under-nutrition due to reduced food
production and increased risk of water, food and insect borne diseases. There could be positive impacts
including fewer cold-related deaths, but overall the negative impacts are likely to outweigh the positives.

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4. Security: More people are expected to be displaced over the 21st century, for example by extreme
weather events. Climate change could lead to a greater risk of violent conflicts, including civil war, by
worsening causes such as poverty.

Impacts such as rising sea levels could also have an effect on the territory of nation states and their
critical infrastructure, while changes to sea ice, shared water resources and fish stocks could worsen
rivalries between countries.

5. Water: Dry areas of the world will see a reduction in water resources, with droughts likely to become
more frequent. The percentage of the world’s population affected by water scarcity will increase, but so
too will numbers affected by major river flooding. Water quality will be affected, with risks to drinking
water quality. Water resources are already being affected by extreme rainfall and melting snow and ice.

6. Coasts: Sea level rises due to melting of ice will increase the risk of submergence, flooding and
erosion in coastal and low-lying areas.

7. Oceans: Fisheries could be hit by shifts in the range and abundance of marine species. Increased
acidity in the oceans, as a result of more carbon dioxide emissions, is a serious risk to coral reefs and
polar regions.

8. Wildlife: A large proportion of species will be at an increased risk of extinction, especially as they
face a host of threats including climate change, habitat loss, pollution and invasive species.

9. Habitats loss accompanied by increases in tree deaths and forest cover reduction are predicted in
many regions globally throughout the entire 21st century as droughts escalate with continued rise in
temperatures.

WATER AND ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

Humidity:

Humidity is a measure of the dampness of the atmosphere which varies greatly from place to place at
different times of day. The actual amount of water vapour present in the air, which in grams per cubic
meter, is called the absolute humidity.

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But more important from the point of view of weather studies is the relative humidity. This is the ratio
between the actual amount of water vapour and the total amount the air can hold at a given temperature,
expressed as a percentage.

Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air, so if it contains only half the amount it could carry,
the relative humidity is 50 per cent. In the equatorial regions, over 80 per cent is common in the morning,
which means the air contains four-fifths as much water vapour as it can carry.

When the relative humidity reaches 100 per cent, the air is completely saturated. The air temperature is
said to be at dew-point. Further cooling will condense the water vapour into clouds or rain. It is thus
clear that when relative humidity is high the air is moist, as in the equatorial regions; when it is low, the
air is dry as in the deserts.

The instrument for measuring relative humidity is the hygrometer, which comprises wet-and dry-bulb
thermometers placed side by side in the Stevenson Screen . The dry-bulb is, in fact, the ordinary
thermometer that measures the shade temperature mentioned earlier.

The wet-bulb is kept wet by a wick that dips into a reservoir of distilled water. When the air is not
saturated evaporation, which produces a cooling effect, takes place from the moist wick. The wet bulb
therefore always shows a lower reading than the dry bulb.

5. Winds:

Wind is air in motion and has both direction and speed. Unlike other elements in climate such as rain,
snow or sleet, winds are made up of a series of gusts and eddies that can only be felt but not seen.

When leaves fall, treed dust particles move, we realise that the wind is blowing. But there is nothing
tangible that we can show or measure unless we make use of some conventional instruments.

The instrument widely used for measuring wind direction is a wind vane or weather cock. As wind
direction is always blocked by trees and tall buildings, weather cocks and wind vanes need to be erected
in an exposed position, to get a true direction.

It is made up of two parts, one part is an arrow or vane on the top, which is free to move with the
prevailing wind. The other part with the four compass points is stationary and shows in which direction

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the wind is moving. Winds are always named from the direction they blow; an east wind is one that
blows from east to west and a south-west wind is one that blows from the south-west. Sometimes a piece
of woven- doth with a tail is fixed to the top of a high pole and drifts freely in mid-air. This is another
way of indicating wind direction. The speed of wind is usually measured by an anemometer. It consists
of three or four semi-circular cups attached to the ends of horizontal spokes mounted on a high vertical
spindle.

As the concave sides of the cups offer greater resistance to the winds, the horizontal spokes will rotate,
moving a central rod which transmits the velocity (speed) of the wind in miles per hour to an electrically
operated dial. But the speed recorded is not absolutely accurate because after the winds have abated, the
rotation continues due to its own momentum. With some modifications, the anemometer can also record
wind directions.

Since an anemometer is not easily available, a little practice of local wind observations will help us to
assess the speed of winds. By seeing the way some objects move, a great deal can be said about the
strength of winds. The best guide is obtainable from the Beaufort Wind Scale which was devised by
Admiral Beaufort in 1805 for estimating wind speed. Frequent reference to the table in your free time
will help you to learn it quickly.

6. Sunshine:

The amount of sunshine a place receives, depends on the seasons, a factor determined by latitude and by
the position of the earth in its revolution around the sun. Tourist resorts, particularly in the higher
temperate latitudes, are most concerned about the numbers of hours of sunshine they receive. In the
tropics, where sunshine is abundant people are less interested in the amount. In the meteorological
station, sunshine duration is recorded by diameter, through which the sun’s rays are focused upon a
sensitized card, graduated in hours. A line is made on the card when it is sufficiently heated, but not
when the rays are faint. On maps places with equal sunshine duration are joined by isohels.

7. Clouds:

When air rises, it is cooled by expansion. After dew-point has been reached cooling leads to condensation
of water vapour in the atmosphere. Tiny droplets of water vapour which are too small to fall as rain or
snow will be suspended in the air and float as clouds. Their form, shape, height and movements tell us a

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great deal about the sky conditions and the weather we are likely to experience. It is fascinating and very
rewarding to know something about the clouds which we see every day.

They are shown on weather maps by discs, shaded in the correct proportions. Details of cloud type are
indicated in code figures which have been internationally accepted. On maps places with an equal degree
of cloudiness are joined by lines known as isonephs. As clouds vary so quickly from time to time at any
particular place, isoneph maps have little significance. The classification of clouds is based on a
combination of form, height and appearance. Four major cloud types and their variations can be
recognized.

8. Other Elements Pertaining to Visibility:

Other elements affecting visibility include haze, mist and fog.

(a) Haze: This is caused by smoke and dust particles in industrial areas or may be due to unequal
refraction of light in air of different densities in the lower atmosphere. The term is usually used in
connection with the reduction of visibility in regions of low humidity, less than 75 per cent. When
visibility is less than U miles, haze is present.

(b) Mist: The condensation of water vapour in the air causes small droplets of water to float about
forming clouds at ground level called mist. It reduces visibility to about 1,000 metres or 1.100 yards.
Unlike haze, mist occurs in wet air, when the relative humidity is over 75 per cent.

(c) Fog: Ordinary fog is due to water condensing on dust and other particles like smoke from houses and
factories. It only occurs in the lower strata of the atmosphere as a sort of dense ‘ground cloud\ The
visibility in fog is even less than 1,000 metres. In industrial areas, like those of the Black Country and
northern England, very thick smoky fog is formed, called smog. The visibility may be reduced to 220
yards or even less.

Fogs that occur on hills are called hill fogs. They are most common in the morning, even in the tropics,
and disperse when the sun rises. In temperate lands, when days are hot and nights are clear and still, fogs
may also result from cooling of the land surface by radiation.

The lower layers of the air are chilled and water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form radiation
fog, or land fog. When the cooling surface is over the sea or when a damp air stream is brought into
contact with a cold current, sea fog is formed. It varies in depth and thickness. Some sea fogs are so
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shallow and light that the masts of ships can be seen protruding above them. Generally fogs are more
common over seas than lands, and are most prevalent over coastal areas. The dry interiors experience
haze or mist. Dense fogs are more likely to occur in the high and middle latitudes rather than the tropics.

ASSIGNMENT

Explain how the following global processes impact the climate of a given area:
i. Overpopulation
ii. Pollution
iii. Burning fossil fuels
iv. Deforestation.
v. Volcanic eruptions
vi. The Earth's orbital changes
vii. Solar variations
viii. Internal variability

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF KENYA

Expected Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain The modified climate

2. Describe the desert climate
3. Explain the highland climate

DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS IN KENYA

 Modified equatorial climate of the coast.

 Modified tropical climate of the highlands.
 Modified equatorial climate of the lake basin.
 Modified equatorial climate of the North western margin.
 Tropical climate of Narok and Southern coastal Kwale areas

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATIC REGIONS

a) The Modified Equatorial Climatic Region

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It is found in the coastal and Lake Victoria regions of Kenya. Examples of these areas are: Mombasa,
Malindi and Kisumu.

Characteristics

1. The daily range of temperature is low.

2. In this region, temperatures are normally high, over 250C most of the year.
3. The region is hot and wet throughout the year.
4. The region receives convectional rainfall.
5. Rainfall is high between 1000 mm to 1500 mm per year.
6. 6) The area experience long rainy season between March and June and a short rainy season between
October and December.
7. The climate is affected by the winds blowing from the Ocean at the coast.
8. Rainfall is well distributed throughout the year.

b) The Modified Tropical Climate Region

It is found in the Kenyan highlands e.g. Areas such as Kisii, Kitale, Kericho and Nairobi.

Characteristics

1. The region is generally cool and wet throughout the year.

2. The region receives relief rainfall because of the high altitude.
3. The high altitude causes the temperatures to be lower.
4. The temperature in this region ranges between 180C and 250C.
5. The region receives a lot of rainfall.

c) The Tropical Climatic Region

It covers Kwale, Taita, and Narok areas.

Characteristics

1. High temperatures.
2. One rainy season.
3. Rainfall does not normally exceed 1000mm per year.
4. In some parts the dry season continues for over five months.

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The Semi-desert and Desert Climatic Region

This climatic region is found in Northern, North-Eastern and some parts of Eastern Kenya.

Characteristics

1. Most of the months are dry causing drought.

2. The dry season is very long especially in the desert region.
3. The region is hot and dry throughout the year.
4. Temperatures are usually high during the day and low during the night.
5. Temperatures are high throughout the year ranging between 250C and 300C.
6. Rainy seasons are very low in that region.
e) The mountain climatic region

They have special climates because of very high altitude e.g. Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon climate
are special.

Characteristics

1. Rainfall is high.
2. The temperatures are low ranging from 00C to about 150C.
3. The region is generally cold and wet throughout the year.
4. The region is characterized by two sides, the leeward side and the windward side.
5. The leeward side is also known as the rain shadow.
6. The windward side receives relief rainfall while the leeward side is drier.

The Influence of Climate on Human Activities

1. The hot and wet climate is good for farming.

2. The cool and wet climate is good in cultivation of crops, growing of forest and dairy farming.
3. The dry and hot climate discourages farming.
4. The hot and dry climate of Magadi in Kajiado District has helped in developing the soda ash industry.

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CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

Expected Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain the hot climates

2. Describe the warm climates
3. Explain the cold climates
Factors Influencing the World Climatic Regions

So far in this online textbook we have discovered that the climate of a particular place is the function of
a number of factors. These factors include:

1. Latitude and its influence on solar radiation received.

2. Air mass influences.
3. Location of global high and low pressure zones.
4. Heat exchange from ocean currents.
5. Distribution of mountain barriers.
6. Pattern of prevailing winds.
7. Distribution of land and sea.
8. Altitude

CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORLD

The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system for classifying the world's
climates. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation.
The Köppen system recognizes five major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter.

A - Tropical Moist Climates: all months have average temperatures above 18° Celsius.

B - Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the year.

C - Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters.

D - Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters.

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E - Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers.

Major Climatic Regions of the world

The world has several climatic zones but Geographers’ definition of the climatic region is based on
maximum and minimum temperatures and the temperature range as well as the total and seasonal
distribution of precipitation for better understanding. Find out the Major Climatic Regions of the world.
The world has several climatic zones but geographer defined the climatic region is based on maximum
and minimum temperatures and the temperature range as well as the total and seasonal distribution of
precipitation for better understanding.

The major climatic regions of the world are discussed below:

1. Equatorial Climatic Region (100 N to 100 S)

It is found between 5° and 10° north and south of the equator. This region gets heavy precipitation which
is between 150 cm/year. Due to the great heat, the mornings are bright and sunny and evening receive
convectional rainfall. Thunder lightning often accompanies the torrential showers. This region is well
known for natural rubber called hevea brasiliensis. Amazon basin (South America), Zaire Basin (Africa)
especially in western part, and South East Asia (mainly islands) are three well defined regions of this
category. a)

The modified equatorial climatic region

It is found in the coastal and Lake Victoria regions of Kenya. Examples of these areas are: Mombasa,
Malindi and Kisumu.

Characteristics

1. The daily range of temperature is low.

2. In this region, temperatures are normally high, over 250C most of the year.
3. The region is hot and wet throughout the year.
4. The region receives convectional rainfall.
5. Rainfall is high between 1000 mm to 1500 mm per year.
6. The area experience long rainy season between March and June and a short rainy season between
October and December.

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7. The climate is affected by the winds blowing from the Ocean at the coast.
8. Rainfall is well distributed throughout the year.

The modified tropical climate region

It is found in the Kenyan highlands e.g. Areas such as Kisii, Kitale, Kericho and Nairobi.

Characteristics

1. The region is generally cool and wet throughout the year.

2. The region receives relief rainfall because of the high altitude.
3. The high altitude causes the temperatures to be lower.
4. The temperature in this region ranges between 180C and 250C.
5. The region receives a lot of rainfall.

c) The tropical climatic region

It covers Kwale, Taita, and Narok areas.

Characteristics

1. High temperatures.
2. One rainy season.
3. Rainfall does not normally exceed 1000mm per year.
4. In some parts the dry season continues for over five months.

2. The Savana or Sudan Climate (100 to 200 N and S)

It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests and the trade wind hot deserts. It
is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons are most
distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate. This climate is characterized by an alternate hot, rainy season
and cool, dry season.

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The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal districts. Savanna
is grasslands of tropical zone. They are known as natural Zoo of the World. Llanos and Campos in South
America; Kano and Salisbury region in Africa; Northern and Central part of Australia are the important
region of this category.

3. The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (200 to 300 N and S)/ Dry Climates

The most obvious climatic feature of this climate is that potential evaporation and transpiration exceed
precipitation. These climates extend from 20 - 35° North and South of the equator and in large continental
regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains. Minor types of this climate include:

 Dry arid (desert) is a true desert climate. It covers 12% of the Earth's land surface and is
dominated by xerophytic vegetation.

Dry semiarid (steppe) is a grassland climate that covers 14% of the Earth's land surface. It
receives more precipitation than the dry arid either from the intertropical convergence zone or
from mid-latitude cyclones.

The aridity of hot desert is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade winds; hence they are also called
trade wind deserts. Sahara (Africa) is the biggest desert and the next biggest is Great Australian desert.
It is found between 200 to 300 N and S. Hot deserts: Sahara, Australia, Arabian, Iranian, Thar, Kalahari,
Namib, Nubian, Mohave (USA), Atacama etc

d) The semi-desert and desert climatic region

This climatic region is found in Northern, North-Eastern and some parts of Eastern Kenya.

Characteristics

1. Most of the months are dry causing drought.

2. The dry season is very long especially in the desert region.
3. The region is hot and dry throughout the year.
4. Temperatures are usually high during the day and low during the night.
5. Temperatures are high throughout the year ranging between 250C and 300C.
6. Rainy seasons are very low in that region.

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4. The Warm Temperate Western Margin or Mediterranean Climate (300 to 400 N and S)

It is a climate that has dry summers that are hot or warm as well as winters that are cool or mild with
moderate or high rainfall. It includes the climate of much of the land near the Mediterranean Sea. Outside
the Mediterranean, one can find this climate only in rather small areas. It is found in many places that
are roughly between latitudes 30° to 40° north and south of the equator.

Important Regions are: Coastal region of Mediterranean Sea; Southern Tips of South-west Africa near
Cape Town; Southern Australian (in southern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the St. Vincent
and Spencer Gulfs); South West Australia (Swan land); California around San Francisco; Central Chile
in South America.

5. Temperate Grasslands or Steppe Climate (400 to 550 N and S)

It is dry lands due to their position in land masses away from oceanic influences. It is characterized by
meagre and unreliable precipitation. The annual range of temperature and rainfall is 13°C and 30 cm.
The sub-regions of this climatic region are known by different names in different regions: Steppes
(Eurasia); Pustaz (Hungary); Prairies (USA); Pampas (South America- Argentina and Uruguay); Velds
(South Africa); Downs (Australia-Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia); Canterbury (New
Zealand).

6. Cool Temperate Continental or Taiga or Siberian Climate (550 to 700 N and S)

It is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration and a cool brief summer. The average rainfall
is 35-60 cm which is quite well distributed through one year with maximum rainfall in summer. This
type of climate is experienced in northern hemisphere only because there is no land mass in southern
hemisphere.

Important regions: Alaska across Canada into Labrador and high Rocky Mountains; Moscow and
adjoining belt in Siberia; Central Europe.

7. The Arctic or Polar or Tundra Climate (700 to 900 N and S) /Polar Climates (E)

Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with the warmest month less than 10° Celsius. Polar
climates are found on the northern coastal areas of North America, Europe, Asia, and on the landmasses

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of Greenland and Antarctica. Two minor climate types exist. Polar tundra is a climate where the soil is
permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost. Vegetation is
dominated by mosses, lichens, dwarf trees and scattered woody shrubs. Polar ice caps has a surface that
is permanently covered with snow and ice.

It is among Earth's coldest, harshest biomes. The ecosystems of this climatic region are treeless regions
found in the Arctic and on the tops of mountains, where the climate is cold and windy and rainfall is
scant. The lands of this region are snow-covered for much of the year, until summer brings a burst of
wildflowers.

8. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical marine Climate

It is also known as a tropical wet climate or trade-wind littoral climate. It is a tropical climate that is
primarily influenced by the ocean. It is usually experienced by islands and coastal areas 10° to 20° north
and south of the equator. There are two main seasons in a tropical marine climate: the wet season and
the dry season. The annual rainfall is 1000 to over 1500 mm (39 to 59 inches). The temperature ranges
from 20 °C to 35 °C (68 ° to 95 °F). The trade winds blow all year round and are moist, as they pass over
warm seas. These climatic conditions are found, for example, across the Caribbean; the eastern coasts of
Brazil, Madagascar and Queensland; and many islands in tropical waters.

The mountain climatic region

They have special climates because of very high altitude e.g. Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon climate
are special.

Characteristics

1. Rainfall is high.
2. The temperatures are low ranging from 00C to about 150C.
3. The region is generally cold and wet throughout the year.
4. The region is characterized by two sides, the leeward side and the windward side.
5. The leeward side is also known as the rain shadow.
6. The windward side receives relief rainfall while the leeward side is drier.

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DESERTIFICATION
Is the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or
inappropriate agriculture. Nearly one fifth of the world's land is threatened with desertification.
Desertification is a type of land degradation in dry lands in which biological productivity is lost due to
natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly more arid.
Climatic variations' and 'Human activities' can be regarded as the two main causes of desertification.
Removal of the natural vegetation cover by taking too much fuel wood）, agricultural activities in the
vulnerable ecosystems of arid and semi-arid areas, which are thus strained beyond their capacity.
Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Other factors that cause desertification
include urbanization, climate change, overuse of groundwater, deforestation, natural disasters, and
tillage practices in agriculture that place soils more vulnerable to wind. The immediate cause is the loss
of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought,
climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials.

Strategies to reduce desertification

1. Planting more trees - the roots of trees hold the soil together and help to reduce soil erosion from
wind and rain.
2. Improving the quality of the soil - this can be managed by encouraging people to reduce the
number of grazing animals they have and grow crops instead.

Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Other factors that cause desertification
include urbanization, climate change, overuse of groundwater, deforestation, natural disasters, and
tillage practices in agriculture that place soils more vulnerable to wind. Almost a third of land in the U.S.
is affected by desertification; and one quarter of Latin America and the Caribbean, and one fifth of Spain.
* Desertification is mainly a problem of sustainable development. Its causes include over-cropping, over-
grazing, improper irrigation practices, and deforestation

Land degradation and desertification can affect human health through complex pathways. As land is
degraded and in some places deserts expand, food production is reduced, water sources dry up and
populations are pressured to move to more hospitable areas. t is caused by physical processes and human
mismanagement. Factors which may cause desertification include: Climate change - especially long dry
periods, causing drought. The dry conditions cause the vegetation to die, so the land loses the protective
cover that vegetation provides.
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Various Causes of Desertification

1. Overgrazing

Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are starting to become desert biomes. If there are
too many animals that are overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for the plants to grow back,
which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.

2. Deforestation

When people are looking to move into an area, or they need trees in order to make houses and do other
tasks, then they are contributing to the problems related to desertification. Without the plants (especially
the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.

3. Farming Practices

Some farmers do not know how to use the land effectively. They may essentially strip the land of
everything that it has before moving on to another plot of land. By stripping the soil of its nutrients,
desertification becomes more of a reality for the area that is being used for farming.

4. Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides

The use of excessive amounts of fertilizers and pesticides to maximize their crop yields in the short term
often leads to significant damages for the soil. In the long run, this may turn from arable into arid land
over time, and it will no longer be suitable for farming purposes after a few years of excessive farming
since the soil has been damaged too much over time.

5. Over drafting of groundwater

Groundwater is the freshwater found underground and also one of the largest water sources. Over
drafting is the process in which groundwater is extracted in excess of the equilibrium yield of the aquifer
that is pumping or the excessive pulling up of groundwater from underground aquifers. Its depletion
causes desertification.

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6. Urbanization and Other Types of Land Development

As mentioned above, development can cause people to go through and kill plant life. It can also cause
issues with the soil due to chemicals and other things that may harm the ground. As areas become more
urbanized, there are fewer places for plants to grow, thus causing desertification.

7. Climate Change

Climate change plays a huge role in desertification. As the days get warmer and periods of drought
become more frequent, desertification becomes more and more eminent. Unless climate change is
slowed down, huge areas of land will become desert; some of those areas may even become
uninhabitable as time goes on.

8. Stripping the Land of Resources

If an area of land has natural resources like natural gas, oil, or minerals, people will come and mine it or
take it out. This usually strips the soil of nutrients, which in turn kills the plant life, and eventually leads
to the process of becoming a desert biome as time goes on.

9. Natural Disasters; There are some cases where the land gets damaged because of natural disasters,
including drought. In those cases, there isn’t a lot that people can do except work to try and help
rehabilitate the land after it has already been damaged by nature.

10. Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is a significant cause of desertification. Most plants are quite sensitive to their natural
living conditions. When soil becomes polluted due to various human activities, the respective area of
land may suffer from desertification in the long run. Higher the level of pollution more will be the
degradation of soil over time.

11. Overpopulation and excessive consumption

Since our world population is continuously growing, the demand for food and material goods is also
increasing at an alarming rate. Our overall level of consumption is also increasing at a steady rate. Thus
to fulfill our demand, we have to optimize our farming processes to harvest even higher crop yields.

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However, this excessive optimization of farming will hurt the soil and will eventually turn into the
desertification of land in the long run.

12. Mining

Mining is another big reason for desertification. Large amounts of resources have to be extracted by
industries to meet our demand for material goods. For mining, large areas of land have to be used, which
causes deforestation as well as pollution of the nearby areas. By the time most of the natural resources
have been extracted, and mining practices are no more profitable, the soil gets damaged significantly,
and the land becomes arid, which may not be recoverable, and desertification occurs.

Devastating Effects of Desertification

1. Farming becomes next to impossible

If an area becomes a desert, then it’s almost impossible to grow substantial crops there without special
technologies. This can cost a lot of money to try and do, so many farmers will have to sell their land and
leave the desert areas.

2. Decrease in Crop Yields

A major effect of desertification is the decrease in crop yields. Once land turns from arable to arid, it is
often on longer suitable for farming purposes anymore. In turn, many farmers may lose their livelihood,
since they often solely rely on farming as their single source of income. If their land becomes arid, they
may no longer be able to provide sufficient crop yields to make a living out of it.

3. Hunger

Without farms in these areas, the food that those farms produce will become much scarcer, and the people
who live in those local areas will be a lot more likely to try and deal with hunger problems. Animals will
also go hungry, which will cause even more of a food shortage.

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4. Flooding

Without plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more imminent. Not all deserts are dry; those that are wet
could experience a lot of flooding because there is nothing to stop the water from gathering and going
all over the place. Flooding can also negatively affect the water supply, which we will discuss next.

5. Poor Water Quality

If an area becomes a desert, the water quality is going to become a lot worse than it would have been
otherwise. This is because plant life plays a significant role in keeping the water clean and clear; without
its presence, it becomes a lot more difficult for you to be able to do that.

6. Overpopulation

When areas start to become desert, animals and people will go to other areas where they can actually
thrive. This causes crowding and overpopulation, which will, in the long run, end up continuing the cycle
of desertification that started this whole thing anyway.

7. Poverty

All of the issues that we’ve talked about above (related to the problem of desertification) can lead to
poverty if it is not kept in check. Without food and water, it becomes harder for people to thrive, and
they take a lot of time to try and get the things that they need.

8. Biodiversity Loss

In general, the destruction of habitats and desertification may also contribute to a loss of biodiversity.
While some species may be able to adjust to the altered environmental conditions properly, many species
will not be able to do so and may suffer from serious declines in population.

9. Endangerment and Extinction of Species

The desertification results in a decline in population for which species may become endangered or even
extinct. This problem is especially severe for species that are already endangered as the small number of
animals or plants that remains may also die off over time, which may even lead to the extinction of
species.
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10. Destruction of Habitats

Desertification often leads to a loss of habitats for many animals and plants. Desertification may alter
the living conditions of the local flora and fauna that makes it impossible for animals and plants to sustain
their populations. After desertification, regions suffer from water shortages due to climate change and
animals may suffer and die since water is vital for all life on our planet.

11. Migration

The desertification implies the destruction of the livelihood of farmers. This problem becomes even
worse when large areas of land that are currently used for farming will then no longer be suitable for
farming due to a lack of water triggered by global warming. This results in serious migration movements.

Solutions to Desertification

1. Policy Changes Related to How People can Farm

In countries where policy change will actually be enforced on those in the country, policy change related
to how often people can farm and how much they can farm on certain areas could be put into place to
help reduce the problems that are often associated with farming and desertification.

2. Policy Changes to Other Types of Land Use

If people are using land to get natural resources or they are developing it for people to live on, then the
policies that govern them should be ones that will help the land to thrive instead of allowing them to
harm the land further. The policy changes could be sweeping or they could be depending on the type of
land use at hand.

3. Education

In developing countries, education is an incredibly important tool that needs to be utilized in order to
help people to understand the best way to use the land that they are farming on. By educating them
on sustainable practices, more land will be saved from becoming desert.

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4. Technology Advances

Research is the key to overcome most of our environmental problems, and it applies to desertification
also. In some cases, it’s difficult to try and prevent desertification from happening. In those cases, there
needs to be research and application of the latest technology that pushes the limits of what we currently
know about the drivers of desertification. Advancements could help us find more ways to prevent the
issue from becoming an epidemic.

5. Restricting Mining Practices

Mining often implies the destruction of large areas of land. Therefore it should be regulated by
governments to keep the nature reserves intact and protect the natural habitats of many animals and
plants. Thus, less land will be arid, and the desertification issue can be mitigated to a certain extent.

6. Putting Together Rehabilitation Efforts

There are some ways that we can go back and rehabilitate the land that we’ve already pushed into
desertification; it just takes some investment of time and money. By putting these together, we can
prevent the issue from becoming even more widespread in the areas that have already been affected.

7. Reforestation

The areas that have been subject to deforestation in the past should be considered for reforestation.
Planting trees in those areas are quite important since they are natural carbon dioxide storage spaces;
they slow down global warming and contribute to maintaining a natural balance. Whereas using those
areas for other purposes may turn them into arid land in the long run. Therefore, planting trees in the
affected areas not only prevents desertification but also fights against additional environmental issues.

CLIMATE CHANGE: NATURAL CAUSES

What Is Climate Change

You have probably heard the terms climate change and global warming used interchangeably. That’s
because both describe changes in earth’s climate. While global warming focuses on the rising average
temperature of the planet, climate change usually refers to the shifts in things like precipitation, wind
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 patterns, and temperatures over a given period. Measured changes in climate could last a few years,
decades, or even millions of years. The climate can be described as the average weather over a period of
time.

Climate change means a significant change in the measures of climate, such as temperature, rainfall, or
wind, lasting for an extended period – decades or longer. The Earth's climate has changed many times
during the planet's history, with events ranging from ice ages to long periods of warmth. What’s different
about this period of the earth’s history is that human activities are significantly contributing to natural
climate change through our emissions of greenhouse gases. This interference is resulting in increased air
and ocean temperatures, drought, melting ice and snow, rising sea levels, increased rainfall, flooding and
other influences.

Climate change has occurred for as long as the earth has existed. It happens anytime earth’s climate
patterns change and remain in place for a measurable amount of time. This has notably manifested itself
in natural cycles of cooling and warming. Before human causes started to shift the global climate, five
main factors interacted with one another as climate changes occurred. These five factors include:

1. Atmosphere (air)
2. Biosphere (living things)
3. Cry sphere (ice and permafrost)
4. Hydrosphere (water)
5. Lithosphere (earth’s crust and upper mantle)

They were interacting via the following processes:

Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases are gases in our atmosphere that cause a greenhouse effect, where heat from the sun
is trapped in the atmosphere, causing the climate to warm. This is the same effect that you experience if
you get into your car on a hot day to find that it is much hotter inside the car than it is outside. Not all
atmospheric gases are greenhouse gases; oxygen and nitrogen, for example, have no bearing on the
greenhouse effect. The biggest greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane.
Throughout Earth's history, the levels of these gases have changed, and so the amount of heat trapped in
the atmosphere has also changed.
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Plant Power

Plants and algae have actually played a pretty huge role in the history of Earth's climate. Because they
undergo photosynthesis, or the process of turning carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose,
they have helped to shape Earth's atmosphere. Back before plants and algae evolved, Earth's atmosphere
was high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen. The climate was much warmer than it is today, since the
greenhouse effect was stronger, trapping more of the sun's heat. As plants evolved, they turned more
carbon dioxide into oxygen, slowly decreasing the greenhouse effect and cooling the planet. If there
were suddenly no more plants or algae on Earth's surface, the amount of carbon dioxide would skyrocket
and Earth's climate would rapidly heat up!

Volcano Venting

Another way for greenhouse gases to get into the atmosphere is through volcanic activity. Volcanoes
vent huge amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide when they erupt. Considering how small volcanoes
are compared to the size of Earth, this activity doesn't have a very large impact on the climate, though
that wasn't always the case. If we go back four billion years, when Earth was still young, hot, and devoid
of life, there was significantly more tectonic activity (the movement of Earth's plates), resulting in
constant earthquakes and volcanic action. This level of activity had a much bigger impact on climate
then than it does today.

The Sun's Heat

Earth's atmosphere traps a lot of heat, which determines our climate. Our sun is the ultimate source of
the heat in our atmosphere. Though it may not seem like it, the sun goes through cycles of its own, phases
where it puts out more heat or less heat. These cycles are due largely to the presence of sunspots, which
are essentially cool patches on the sun's surface that appear darker when observed and last about 11
years. It has been measured, how much the sun's heat output changes during these cycles, though it seems
to have a fairly small impact on Earth's climate.

Changes in the Earth’s orbit

The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, not a circle but the ellipse changes shape. Sometimes it
is almost circular and the Earth stays approximately the same distance from the Sun as it progresses
around its orbit. At other times the ellipse is more pronounced so that the Earth moves closer and further
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away from the sun as it orbits. When the Earth is closer to the sun our climate is warmer. Elliptical orbit
– when the Earth is closer to the Sun, its climate is warmer.

Changes in the orientation of the Earth’s axis of rotation

The Earth showing angle of axis of rotation as it move along its orbit. When the angle increases the
summers become warmer and the winters become colder. The Earth rotates around an axis (imagine a
line that joins the north and south poles) but the Earth’s axis is not upright, it leans at an angle. This
angle changes with time and over about 41 000 years it moves from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and
back again. When the angle increases the summers become warmer and the winters become colder.

Quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

The gases that contribute most to the Earth's greenhouse effect are: water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide, methane and ozone. These include carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour. Of these three,
water vapour makes the greatest contribution to the greenhouse effect because there is more of it. These
gases trap solar radiation (electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun) in the Earth’s atmosphere,
making the climate warmer.

Carbon dioxide content of the oceans

The oceans contain more carbon dioxide (CO2) than the atmosphere and they can also absorb CO2 from
the atmosphere. When the CO2 is in the oceans it does not trap heat as it does when it is in the atmosphere.
If CO2 leaves the oceans and moves back into the atmosphere this can contribute towards a warmer
climate.

Plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions

Over time, plate tectonic processes cause continents to move to different positions on the globe. For
example, Britain was near to the equator 300 million years ago, and therefore was hotter than it is today.
For further details look at our Climate through time poster or online map. The movement of the plates
also causes volcanoes and mountains to form and these too can contribute to a change in climate.
Mountain ranges formed by plate tectonics. Large mountain chains can influence the circulation of
air around the globe, and consequently influence the climate. Warm air might be deflected somewhere
cooler by the mountains.
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Volcanoes formed by plate tectonics.

Volcanoes affect the climate through the gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during
eruptions. The effect of the volcanic gases and dust may warm or cool the Earth's surface, depending on
how sunlight interacts with the volcanic material.

Ocean Currents

Global ocean currents. Oceans store a large amount of heat, so that small changes in ocean currents can
have a large effect on coastal and global climate. Ocean currents carry heat around the Earth. The
direction of these currents can shift so that different areas become warmer and cooler. Oceans store a
large amount of heat, so that small changes in ocean currents can have a large effect on coastal and global
climate.

Vegetation coverage on the land

On a global scale, patterns of vegetation and climate are closely correlated. Vegetation absorbs carbon
dioxide and this can buffer some of the effects of global warming.

Meteorite impacts

Nowadays, most of what is on the Earth stays on the Earth; very little material is added by meteorites
and cosmic dust. The only material lost to space is in space hardware. However, meteorite impacts have
contributed to climate change in the geological past.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

It is much easier to document the evidence of climate variability and past climate change than it is to
determine their underlying mechanisms. Climate is influenced by a multitude of factors that operate at
timescales ranging from hours to hundreds of millions of years. Many of the causes of climate change
are external to the Earth system. Others are part of the Earth system but external to the atmosphere. Still
others involve interactions between the atmosphere and other components of the Earth system and are
collectively described as feedbacks within the Earth system. Feedbacks are among the most recently
discovered and challenging causal factors to study. Nevertheless, these factors are increasingly

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recognized as playing fundamental roles in climate variation. The most important mechanisms are
described in this section.

Perhaps the most intensively discussed and researched topic in climate variability is the role of
interactions and feedbacks among the various components of the Earth system. The feedbacks involve
different components that operate at different rates and timescales. Ice sheets, sea ice, terrestrial Climate
change describes a change in the average conditions — such as temperature and rainfall — in a region
over a long period of time. For example, 20,000 years ago, much of the United States was covered in
glaciers. In the United States today, we have a warmer climate and fewer glaciers.

The earth's climate is dynamic and always changing through a natural cycle. What the world is more
worried about is that the changes that are occurring today have been speeded up because of man's
activities. These changes are being studied by scientists all over the world who are finding evidence from
tree rings, pollen samples, ice cores, and sea sediments. The causes of climate change can be divided
into two categories - those that are due to natural causes and those that are created by man.

Natural causes

There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more prominent ones
are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth's tilt, and comets and meteorites. Let's look at
them in a little detail.

1. Volcanoes

Volcanic activity can influence climate in a number of ways at different timescales. Individual volcanic
eruptions can release large quantities of sulfur dioxide and other aerosols into the stratosphere, reducing
atmospheric transparency and thus the amount of solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface and
troposphere. Volcanoes and related phenomena, such as ocean rifting and subduction, release carbon
dioxide into both the oceans and the atmosphere. Emissions are low; even a massive volcanic eruption
such as Mount Pinatubo releases only a fraction of the carbon dioxide emitted by fossil-fuel combustion
in a year. Variations in carbon dioxide release by volcanoes and ocean rifts over millions of years can
alter the chemistry of the atmosphere. Such changeability in carbon dioxide concentrations probably
accounts for much of the climatic variation

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When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of Sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and
ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days, yet the large volumes
of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for years. Millions of tonnes of Sulphur dioxide gas can
reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the stratosphere) from a major eruption. The gases and
dust particles partially block the incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphur dioxide combines
with water to form tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small that many of them can
stay aloft for several years. They are efficient reflectors of sunlight, and screen the ground from some of
the energy that it would ordinarily receive from the sun. Winds in the upper levels of the atmosphere,
called the stratosphere, carry the aerosols rapidly around the globe in either an easterly or westerly
direction. Movement of aerosols north and south is always much slower. This should give you some idea
of the ways by which cooling can be brought about for a few years after a major volcanic eruption.

2. Ocean currents

The oceans are a major component of the climate system. They cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb
about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the land surface. Ocean currents move
vast amounts of heat across the planet - roughly the same amount as the atmosphere does. But the oceans
are surrounded by land masses, so heat transport through the water is through channels.
Winds push horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns.
Certain parts of the world are influenced by ocean currents more than others. The El Niño event in the
Pacific Ocean can affect climatic conditions all over the world.

World region that is strongly influenced by ocean currents is the North Atlantic. If we compare places
at the same latitude in Europe and North America the effect is immediately obvious. Take a closer look
at this example - some parts of coastal Norway have an average temperature of -2°C in January and 14°C
in July; while places at the same latitude on the Pacific coast of Alaska are far colder: -15°C in January
and only 10°C in July. The warm current along the Norwegian coast keeps much of the Greenland-
Norwegian Sea free of ice even in winter. The rest of the Arctic Ocean, even though it is much further
south, remains frozen. Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow down. Much of the
heat that escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapour, the most abundant greenhouse gas on
Earth. Yet, water vapor also contributes to the formation of clouds, which shade the surface and have a
net cooling effect.

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3. Solar variability

The brightness, of the Sun has been increasing steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is
important to Earth’s climate, because the Sun provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation and
constitutes the input for Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during Precambrian time underlies
the faint young Sun paradox, described in the section Climates of early Earth.

Radiative energy from the Sun is variable at very small timescales, owing to solar storms and other
disturbances, but variations in solar activity, particularly the frequency of sunspots, are also documented
at decadal to millennial timescales and probably occur at longer timescales as well. The “Maunder
minimum,” a period of drastically reduced sunspot activity between ad 1645 and 1715, has been
suggested as a contributing factor to the Little Ice Age. The Sun as imaged in extreme ultraviolet light
by the Earth-orbiting Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite. A massive loop-shaped
eruptive prominence is visible at the lower left. Nearly white areas are the hottest; deeper reds indicate
cooler temperatures.

4. Orbital variations/ Changes in the Earth’s orbit

The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, not a circle but the ellipse changes shape. Sometimes it
is almost circular and the Earth stays approximately the same distance from the Sun as it progresses
around its orbit. At other times the ellipse is more pronounced so that the Earth moves closer and further
away from the sun as it orbits. When the Earth is closer to the sun our climate is warmer.
Elliptical orbit – when the Earth is closer to the Sun, its climate is warmer. The orbital geometry of
Earth is affected in predictable ways by the gravitational influences of other planets in the solar system.
Three primary features of Earth’s orbit are affected, each in a cyclic, or regularly recurring, manner.
First, the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, varies from nearly circular to elliptical (eccentric), with
periodicities of 100,000 and 413,000 years.

Second, the tilt of Earth’s axis with respect to the Sun, which is primarily responsible for Earth’s seasonal
climates, varies between 22.1° and 24.5° from the plane of Earth’s rotation around the Sun. This variation
occurs on a cycle of 41,000 years. In general, the greater the tilt, the greater the solar radiation received
by hemispheres in summer and the less received in winter. The third cyclic change to Earth’s orbital
geometry results from two combined phenomena: (1) Earth’s axis of rotation wobbles, changing the
direction of the axis with respect to the Sun, and (2) the orientation of Earth’s orbital ellipse rotates
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slowly. These two processes create a 26,000-year cycle, called precession of the equinoxes, in which the
position of Earth at the equinoxes and solstices changes. Today Earth is closest to the Sun (perihelion)
near the December solstice, whereas 9,000 years ago perihelion occurred near the June solstice.

These orbital variations cause changes in the latitudinal and seasonal distribution of solar radiation,
which in turn drive a number of climate variations. Orbital variations play major roles in pacing glacial-
interglacial and monsoonal patterns.

5. The earth's tilt

The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the
perpendicular plane of its orbital path. For one half of the year when it is summer, the northern
hemisphere tilts towards the sun. In the other half when it is winter, the earth is tilted away from the sun.
If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the
severity of the seasons - more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters. The Earth's orbit is somewhat elliptical, which means that the distance
between the earth and the Sun varies over the course of a year. We usually think of the earth's axis as
being fixed, after all, it always seems to point toward Polaris (also known as the Pole Star and the North
Star). Actually, it is not quite constant: the axis does move, at the rate of a little more than a half-degree
each century. So Polaris has not always been, and will not always be, the star pointing to the North.
When the pyramids were built, around 2500 BC, the pole was near the star Thuban (Alpha Draconis).
This gradual change in the direction of the earth's axis, called precession is responsible for changes in
the climate.

6. Continental drift/Tectonic activity

Tectonic movements of Earth’s crust have had profound effects on climate at timescales of millions to
tens of millions of years. These movements have changed the shape, size, position, and elevation of the
continental masses changing Earth through geologic time, from the late Cambrian Period. . Topographic
and bathymetric changes in turn have had strong effects on the circulation of both the atmosphere and
the oceans. For example, the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau during the Cenozoic Era affected atmospheric
circulation patterns, creating the South Asian monsoon and influencing climate over much of the rest of
Asia and neighbouring regions.

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Tectonic activity also influences atmospheric chemistry, particularly carbon dioxide concentrations.
Carbon dioxide is emitted from volcanoes and vents in rift zones and subduction zones. Variations in the
rate of spreading in rift zones and the degree of volcanic activity near plate margins have influenced
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations throughout Earth’s history. Even the chemical weathering of
rock constitutes an important sink for carbon dioxide. (A carbon sink is any process that removes carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere by the chemical conversion of CO2 to organic or inorganic carbon
compounds.) Carbonic acid, formed from carbon dioxide and water, is a reactant in dissolution of
silicates and other minerals. Weathering rates are related to the mass, elevation, and exposure of bedrock.
Tectonic uplift can increase all these factors and thus lead to increased weathering and carbon dioxide
absorption. For example, the chemical weathering of the rising Tibetan Plateau may have played an
important role in depleting the atmosphere of carbon dioxide during a global cooling period.

A diagram shows the position of Earth at the beginning of each season in the Northern Hemisphere.

Solar radiation
Earth’s climate system is driven by solar radiation; seasonal differences in climate ultimately result from
the seasonal changes in Earth’s orbit. The circulation of air in the atmosphere and water in the oceans

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responds to seasonal variations of available energy from the Sun. Specific seasonal changes in climate
occurring at any given location on Earth’s surface largely result from the transfer of energy from
atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Differences in surface heating taking place between summer and
winter cause storm tracks and pressure centre to shift position and strength. These heating differences
also drive seasonal changes in cloudiness, precipitation, and wind.

Seasonal responses of the biosphere (especially vegetation) and cry sphere (glaciers, sea ice, snowfields)
also feed into atmospheric circulation and climate. Leaf fall by deciduous trees as they go into winter
dormancy increases the albedo (reflectivity) of Earth’s surface and may lead to greater local and regional
cooling. Similarly, snow accumulation also increases the albedo of land surfaces and often amplifies
winter’s effects. Only about 40 per cent of the solar energy intercepted at the top of the atmosphere
passes through to the Earth’s surface. Almost all of the energy that affects the climate on the Earth
originates from the Sun. The energy emitted by the sun passes through space until it hits the Earth’s
atmosphere. The rest is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. The energy output of the sun is not
constant, it varies over time and it has an impact on our climate.

Vegetation

Vegetation, ocean temperatures, weathering rates, ocean circulation, and greenhouse gas concentrations
are all influenced either directly or indirectly by the atmosphere; however, they also all feed back into
the atmosphere, thereby influencing it in important ways. For example, different forms and densities of
vegetation on the land surface influence the albedo, or reflectivity, of Earth’s surface, thus affecting the
overall radiation budget at local to regional scales. At the same time, the transfer of water molecules
from soil to the atmosphere is mediated by vegetation, both directly (from transpiration through plant
stomata) and indirectly (from shading and temperature influences on direct evaporation from soil). This
regulation of latent heat flux by vegetation can influence climate at local to global scales. As a result,
changes in vegetation, which are partially controlled by climate, can in turn influence the climate system.
Vegetation also influences greenhouse gas concentrations; living plants constitute an important sink for
atmospheric carbon dioxide, whereas they act as sources of carbon dioxide when they are burned by
wildfires or undergo decomposition. These and other feedbacks among the various components of the
Earth system are critical for both understanding past climate changes and predicting future ones.

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These impacts are expected to intensify in the coming decades.

Climate change describes a change in the average conditions — such as temperature and rainfall — in a
region over a long period of time. For example, 20,000 years ago, much of the United States was covered
in glaciers. In the United States today, we have a warmer climate and fewer glaciers. Global climate
change refers to the average long-term changes over the entire Earth. These include warming
temperatures and changes in precipitation, as well as the effects of Earth’s warming, such as:

6. Rising sea levels

7. Shrinking mountain glaciers
8. Ice melting at a faster rate than usual in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic
9. Changes in flower and plant blooming times.

1. Melting ice and rising sea

When water warms up it expands. At the same time global warming causes polar ice sheets and glaciers
to melt. The combination of these changes is causing sea levels to rise, resulting in flooding and erosion
of coastal and low lying areas.

2. Extreme weather, shifting rainfall

Heavy rain and other extreme weather events are becoming more frequent. This can lead to floods and
decreasing water quality, but also decreasing availability of water resources in some regions.

Consequences for the world

 Some areas are seeing more frequent heat waves, forest fires and droughts.
 The Mediterranean area is becoming drier, making it even more vulnerable to drought and
wildfires.
 Some parts of the world are getting significantly wetter, and winter floods could become
common.
 Urban areas, in temperate lands now live, are exposed to heat waves, flooding or rising sea levels,
but are often ill-equipped for adapting to climate change.

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Consequences for developing countries

Many poor developing countries are among the most affected. People living there often depend heavily
on their natural environment and they have the least resources to cope with the changing climate.

3. Risks for human health

Climate change is already having an impact on health:

 There has been an increase in the number of heat-related deaths in some regions and a decrease
in cold-related deaths in others.
 We are already seeing changes in the distribution of some water-borne illnesses and disease
vectors.

4. Costs for society and economy

Damage to property and infrastructure and to human health imposes heavy costs on society and the
economy. Between 1980 and 2011 floods affected more than 5.5 million people and caused direct
economic losses of more than €90 billion. Sectors that rely strongly on certain temperatures and
precipitation levels such as agriculture, forestry, energy and tourism are particularly affected.

5. Risks for wildlife

Climate change is happening so fast that many plants and animal species are struggling to cope. Many
terrestrial, freshwater and marine species have already moved to new locations. Some plant and animal
species will be at increased risk of extinction if global average temperatures continue to rise unchecked.

Facts That Prove that climate change is real

Many people continue to believe climate change is real. And there are others out there who believe it
exists but just as an expected part of nature that doesn’t have any human influence behind it. And,
unfortunately, many people in high positions of power and media companies with huge influence push
misinformation and false narratives to discredit the science that proves humans are responsible for
accelerated climate change.

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The Pew Research Center found that people in high-emissions countries, such as the United States,
Australia, and Canada are far less concerned about climate change, whereas people living in lower-
emissions areas of the world – who are far less responsible for climate change in the first place – are
much more concerned about it, not least because these areas are already feeling adverse impacts. It’s
estimated that nearly 500,000 people have died due to extreme weather events between 1999 and 2018,
with countries including Haiti, Pakistan, and the Philippines affected by recurring disasters.

The Global Temperature is rising

The average global temperature is rising, particularly in recent years. 2019 was the second warmest year
on record, with a global average temperature of 1.15 degrees Celsius higher than pre-industrial averages.
Nine out of ten of the warmest years on record have occurred within the last fifteen years.

Warming Oceans

The world’s oceans have become a vast dumping ground for the world’s trash. Yet there is another thing
the oceans take in, in vast quantities: heat. A 2013 assessment found that oceans had absorbed 93% of
the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since 1970, contributing to the increased average
global sea temperatures rising by about 0.13 degrees Celsius per decade over the last century.

Shrinking Ice Sheets

Ice sheets contain vast amounts of frozen freshwater and cover such a large surface area that they
influence global weather patterns. NASA satellites have been tracking shrinking ice sheets for decades,
documenting significant losses since 2002. The Greenland ice sheet – the biggest in the world – has been
of particular concern to scientists after documenting a 30 percent decline in total mass between 1979 to
2006. 2019 saw record melting, with the sheet losing a whopping 197 gigatonnes.

Glacial Retreat

Around the world, glaciers are in retreat – meaning they are shrinking and disappearing before our very
eyes. The Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas, including the Himalayas, has the densest concentration
of glaciers outside of the Polar Regions – at least, it once did. Studies have shown many glaciers enduring
negative mass balance, meaning they are losing more ice than they are accumulating, leading to glacial
retreat. Glaciers in Himalaya in India are retreating so quickly that researchers believe that many – if not
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most – Himalayan glaciers could essentially disappear by 2035. These findings are especially concerning
given that these glaciers feed major rivers such as the Indus, providing vital water sources for millions
of people downstream.

Decreased Snow Cover

Snow cover is an important cooling agent thanks to its albedo effect – the ability to reflect the sun’s rays,
preventing heat from being absorbed into the earth. Globally, snow reflects up to 90% of the sun’s
energy. Climate change has seen significant decreases in snow cover around the world; in the Temperate
land average snow cover in April was observed to have declined 21 percent since 1915.

Sea Level Rise

Ocean levels are rising at a rate of 3.3 millimeters per year. In the last century, levels have risen between
four and eight inches. Though this may sound infinitesimal, the cumulative effects are going to have
devastating consequences if these trends continue, as millions of people live in dense urban areas along
coastlines. Sea level rise is driven by two factors caused by climate change. As ice sheets and glaciers
melt, they pour extra water into the oceans. The less obvious factor contributing to sea level rise is the
expansion of ocean water, caused by warming temperatures.

Declining Arctic Sea Ice

Over the last two decades, arctic air temperatures have gradually increased, thanks to a vicious cycle of
warming air, which melts ice, which warms the air, ad infinitum. Warming air and ocean temperatures
have caused sea ice in Arctic regions to decline by roughly 10 percent in the last three decades.

Extreme Events

The number of extreme events in recent decades is truly mind-boggling, and unfortunately is one of the
ways people can get a taste of the climate emergency first-hand. In recent years, fire seasons in California
and Australia have been unprecedented. Changing temperatures in the Indian Ocean created the perfect
storm of conditions for locusts, which swarmed part of East Africa and the Middle East, spurring food
security issues as the insects’ devoured crops. In the Bay of Bengal, super cyclone Amphan killed
hundreds of people and caused widespread flooding. As of 2020, some areas in the world is still
recovering from Hurricane Maria, three years after the devastating hurricane hit.
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Ocean Acidification

When atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by the world’s oceans, these vast bodies of water become
more acidic. Acidified ocean water inhibits calcification, a process that animals such as snails, oysters,
and crabs rely upon in order to build shells and skeletons. Already, some animals are essentially
dissolving, as the oceans have become 30 percent more acidic in the last two centuries, with the ocean’s
pH dropping from 8.2 to 8.1 in the last hundred years alone. These changes are occurring at faster rates
than has occurred in the last 300 million years.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The outlook for the world’s climate, and the effects climate change will have in the future, is fairly grim.
Greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise as many countries push for the development of “dirty”
energies such as coal and oil. The Trump Administration withdrew from the Paris Accord in 2019,
effectively proclaiming to the world that no serious action will be taken. This is despite the fact that
nearly 200 other countries signed onto the agreement in 2015, with higher-income nations pledging to
provide financial support to help mitigate the disasters of the climate emergency. Even so, critics say
that the Accord isn’t going to do enough to stave off worst-case scenarios. Because climate science is
so complex, and given that the world still has time to make significant changes to lifestyles and curb
emissions, there is no way to divine exactly what will occur over the next few decades. Below are some
general examples that will occur should global emissions not be drastically curbed.

Temperatures Will Continue To Rise

Polluting greenhouse gasses from activities such as electricity generation and transportation collect in
the atmosphere. When heat from the sun is reflected off the earth’s surface, it is normally sent back out
to space. However, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere capture and collect this heat, causing global
temperatures to rise. This is what’s known as the greenhouse effect. And as long as fossil fuels continue
to be burned, this effect will only continue to magnify.

Frost-free Season Will Lengthen

The lengthening of frost-free season means that springtime will arrive sooner and fall will be delayed.
While this might sound appealing, this can be severely disruptive for plants and animals. Plants and trees
will bloom sooner, and migration and hibernation patterns of animals, birds and insects will be disrupted.
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In the mountain ridges of the West coast of the continental Canada, the frost-free season is predicted as
lengthening by 80 days by the end of the century – causing potential disruptions with agriculture and the
natural rhythms of ecosystems.

Changes in Precipitation Patterns

Changing weather patterns can bring drought to vast areas of land, where once agricultural cultivation
was taking place, causing potential food security issues. Desertification is another threat caused by the
absence of rain, where desert-like conditions move into once-lush areas. Conversely, more severe storms
and shifting jet streams may cause increased precipitation, resulting in serious flooding.

More Droughts and Heat Waves

In the temperate belts, serious heat waves are expected to become more common especially in California
and the Southwest in particular. Regarding the latter, even nighttime will be much hotter, making it more
difficult for fauna and flora to adjust, given the absence of respite normally expected during nocturnal
hours. Hotter temperatures reduce snowpack and evapotranspiration, leading to drier soils. Droughts
could become more frequent, longer and severe.

Hurricanes Will Become Stronger and More Intense

According to one model, there could be a 40 percent increase in hurricanes of category 3 or higher. These
storms may take place in the North Atlantic as well as the North Pacific, which puts major cities in Asia
at serious risk.

Sea Level Will Rise

One study estimates that a billion people currently live on land within less than 10 meters above high
tide lines, and predicts that around 190 million people will be displaced by the year 2100 – and this is
providing that action is taken to curtail emissions. Within high emissions scenarios, where little to no
action is taken, up to 630 million people could be affected in that same time period. Islands in the South
Pacific such as Tuvalu, and megacities including Jakarta, Tokyo and New York are all at risk.

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Arctic Likely To Become Ice-free

The Arctic is projected to continue losing ice and snow on both land and sea, including ice sheets and
glaciers. Many guesses have been made as to when the Arctic will become entirely ice-free; some
estimates put it as early as the 2020s, with others predicting somewhere around 2040. Regardless, the
consensus appears to be that this is a question of when not if.

Climate Change Solutions

Carbon mitigation efforts often focus on the world’s poorest people, partly because they will be the most
severely impacted. Lower-income people tend to have less mobility in order to escape natural disasters,
and less able to recover economically and otherwise. Lower-income countries can also be the focus of
some climate solutions when it is pointed out that as these places become wealthier, their lifestyles will
increasingly consume more fossil fuels, demanding they take action to mitigate these future effects.
However, in many ways, this is tantamount to victim-blaming and directs the focus away from where
the problem largely originates: with wealthy Western lifestyles.

Some argue that more policies are needed that target people at the opposite end of the social ladder. One
paper points out that the super-rich have long escaped criticism for their lifestyles, yet the top 1% of
income earners could have a carbon footprint 175 times larger than low-income individuals.

Regardless, implementing solutions within a framework of economic justice can offer some of the most
promising solutions. For example, a gasoline tax fund could be established that not only discourages
personal cars but would fund mass transit. A carbon tax on industrial polluters would incentivize them
to make their operations more efficient. Perhaps the biggest, and most obvious, solutions would be to
end government subsidies to fossil fuel companies, funneling this money instead into things like
affordable housing within urban areas in order to reduce sprawl.

And of course, one can’t discuss climate change solutions without mentioning green technologies.
Things like wind, solar, and geothermal energy are increasingly viable alternatives to fossil fuels.
Although their production currently requires the expenditure of fossil fuels and other harmful industrial
processes, these technologies are improving rapidly in the hopes of creating energy sources that require
relatively minimal damage to the planet.

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Conclusion

The dangers presented by the climate emergency are real and can paint a gloomy picture of what the
future holds for subsequent generations of people and all other inhabitants on earth. Already, undeniable
effects are being felt throughout the world. Yet it isn’t too late to turn things around. Countries like the
United States bear an outsized responsibility to curb emissions, being among the biggest emitters of
greenhouse gases. The incentive to create a viable future grows more each year.

TACKLLING CLIMATE CHARGE

Expected Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss strategies to reduce climate charge

2. Describe the global warming
3. Explain how curb global warming
Here are five ways we can tackle the climate crisis in 2020 and beyond.

1. Cut fossil fuel extraction on America’s public lands.

This may come as a surprise, but American public lands are a huge source of climate emissions. More
than 20 percent of the country's total emissions come from oil, natural gas and coal extracted on those
sites. The federal government can easily turn this around by tightening leasing rules and charging fossil
fuel companies a fair price for these lands. Right now, the Trump administration often gives acres away
for the price of a cup of coffee.

2. Use damaged land to boost clean energy.

We need to generate a lot more renewable energy to replace old, dirty energy and slow down the climate
crisis. And we know the perfect places for new projects. A lot of public lands across the country have
been abandoned after being used for mining, landfills and coal plants. These lots are perfect for clean
energy sites, since they've already been disturbed in some way and won't impact new wildlife habitats.

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3. Protect and expand natural carbon sinks

Have you ever heard of carbon sinks? They are natural landscapes that have the power to absorb the
heat-trapping gas carbon dioxide. The Tongass Natural Forest in Alaska is the most prolific carbon sink
in the country. From its trees to the underlying soil, it stores more carbon dioxide than any other forest
in the country. We should take steps to preserve and expand the Tongass and other forests in the New
Year instead of opening them up to roads, logging and other development.

4. Bring local communities to the table.

The climate crisis impacts some communities more than others, mostly lower-income and communities
of color. Hispanic immigrants, for instance, have more than three times the risk of dying from heat-
related illnesses likely due to outdoor working conditions and limited access to medical care.
Communities of color are also disproportionally impacted by the air pollution that stems from fossil fuel
sites. African Americans are exposed to about 56 percent more pollution than then they generate, while
Hispanics bear the brunt with 63 percent. Dirty air has been associated with lung disease, heart disease
and premature death. If we're going to be successful in tackling climate change, these communities need
to be a part of the conversation from the start. Their first-hand experiences and input are essential to
make sure that we're not leaving anyone behind as we implement solutions.

5. Support new climate legislations.

We can't move forward with any of the tactics above without having legislation in place that establish
the right framework to face the massive challenge that is climate change.

1. More heat alters ice, weather and oceans

These are some high-profile examples of how the extra warmth changes climate conditions and weather
patterns:

 The cryosphere – the frozen water on Earth – is melting. A warmer atmosphere causes the planet's
snowpack, glaciers and sea and freshwater ice to melt rapidly. Melting glaciers and polar ice
sheets contribute to unprecedented sea level rise. Melting sea ice exposes darker ocean waters,
which absorb more sunlight than ice – heating the ocean more and speeding up a relentless cycle
of melting and heating.
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  The oceans are getting hotter, expanding and becoming more acidic. They are getting hotter
because they absorb 90 percent of the extra heat in the climate. This shift causes the oceans to
expand, contributing to higher sea levels, and strips corals of their vivid colors. Meanwhile,
nearly a third of carbon dioxide emissions end up in the oceans, triggering a chemistry change
that makes the water more acidic, dissolving the shells of sea creatures. The ocean is almost 40
percent more acidic than it used to be.
 Weather is getting more extreme. Heatwaves are more frequent worldwide. The increased
evaporation of water is like fuel for storms, exacerbating extreme weather events, such as
hurricanes. Rising sea levels make storm surges capable of much greater damage. In more
naturally arid areas, droughts and wildfires are intensifying.

2. Human life and prosperity suffer

 Climate change is a major threat to agriculture. Where, how and when we grow food is vitally
connected to our climate's normal patterns. Worldwide, farmers are struggling to keep up with
shifting weather patterns and increasingly unpredictable water supplies. Farms are more likely to
face attacks from weeds, diseases and pests, which affect yield. Extreme events also threaten
crop yields, such as through flooding or reduced water supply.
 Warmer, polluted air affects our health. A warmer atmosphere increases the formation of ground-
level ozone – also known as smog – in polluted regions. Smog irritates lungs and triggers asthma
attacks. Smoke from wildfires further degrades the air. Extreme summer heat means more deaths
during heatwaves. Warmer freshwater makes it easier for disease-causing agents (such as
bacteria) to grow and contaminate drinking water.
 Infrastructure and transportation are at risk. Hot weather, flooding and other extreme weather
events damage infrastructure, put heavy burdens on electrical supplies and disrupt how we travel
and commute.

3. Natural habitats become hostile

Climate change is threatening the sea ice where polar bears live.

Habitats on land and in the sea are changing, making them inhospitable for some species, while letting
others move in and take over. Some ecosystems are at risk of collapsing.

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Here are three well-documented examples of changes to the natural world:

 The ice Arctic animals need is vanishing. As sea ice disappears, ice-dependent mammals such as
walruses and polar bears struggle to survive. In 2008, the polar bear became the first animal to
make the Endangered Species Act list of threatened species because of global warming.
 Coral and shellfish are suffering. Coral reefs are highly sensitive to small changes in ocean
temperatures. The heat stresses the algae that nourish the corals and provide their vibrant colors.
The algae then leave, and the corals eventually starve – an event known as bleaching. As coral
reefs are home to many other species, such as fish, their collapse would disrupt the entire
ecosystem. Also, a more acidic ocean affects the normal calcium balance, meaning creatures with
calcified shells, such as shellfish and coral, may not have enough calcium to grow.
 Forests are more prone to deadly infestations. Milder winters and longer summers allow tree-
killing insects to thrive. Meanwhile, trees weakened by prolonged drought have lower defense
mechanisms. This cycle of warmer weather, weak trees and thriving insects is likely the culprit
behind the massive die-off of 70,000 square miles of Rocky Mountain conifers.

Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply

Key Points

 Moderate warming and more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may help some plants to grow
faster. However, more severe warming, floods, and drought may reduce yields.
 Livestock may be at risk, both directly from heat stress and indirectly from reduced quality of
their food supply.
 Fisheries will be affected by changes in water temperature that make waters more hospitable to
invasive species and shift the ranges or lifecycle timing of certain fish species.

Agriculture is an important sector of the U.S. economy. The crops, livestock, and seafood produced in
the United States contribute more than $300 billion to the economy each year. When food-service and
other agriculture-related industries are included, the agricultural and food sectors contribute more than
$750 billion to the gross domestic product.

Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on the climate. Increases in temperature and carbon
dioxide (CO2) can increase some crop yields in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels,

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soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and
severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers and threaten food
safety. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and
shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more
difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done
in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors
that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.

Impacts on Crops

Despite technological improvements that increase corn yields, extreme weather events have caused
significant yield reductions in some years. Crops grown in the United States are critical for the food
supply here and around the world. U.S. farms supply nearly 25% of all grains (such as wheat, corn, and
rice) on the global market.[4] Changes in temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2), and the
frequency and intensity of extreme weather could have significant impacts on crop yields.

For any particular crop, the effect of increased temperature will depend on the crop's optimal temperature
for growth and reproduction.[1] In some areas, warming may benefit the types of crops that are typically
planted there, or allow farmers to shift to crops that are currently grown in warmer areas. Conversely, if
the higher temperature exceeds a crop's optimum temperature, yields will decline.

Related Links

 Higher CO2 levels can affect crop yields. Some laboratory experiments suggest that elevated CO2
levels can increase plant growth. However, other factors, such as changing temperatures, ozone,
and water and nutrient constraints, may counteract these potential increases in yield. For example,
if temperature exceeds a crop's optimal level, if sufficient water and nutrients are not available,
yield increases may be reduced or reversed. Elevated CO2 has been associated with reduced
protein and nitrogen content in alfalfa and soybean plants, resulting in a loss of quality. Reduced
grain and forage quality can reduce the ability of pasture and rangeland to support grazing
livestock.[1]
 More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme events,
especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. For example, in 2010 and

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 2012, high nighttime temperatures affected corn yields across the U.S. Corn Belt, and premature
budding due to a warm winter caused $220 million in losses of Michigan cherries in 2012.[1]
 Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where rising summer temperatures cause
soils to become drier. Although increased irrigation might be possible in some places, in other
places water supplies may also be reduced, leaving less water available for irrigation when more
is needed.
 Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increased
CO2 levels. Currently, U.S. farmers spend more than $11 billion per year to fight weeds, which
compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients.[1] The ranges and distribution of weeds and
pests are likely to increase with climate change. This could cause new problems for farmers'
crops previously unexposed to these species.
 Though rising CO2 can stimulate plant growth, it also reduces the nutritional value of most food
crops. Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide reduce the concentrations of protein and
essential minerals in most plant species, including wheat, soybeans, and rice. This direct effect
of rising CO2 on the nutritional value of crops represents a potential threat to human health.
Human health is also threatened by increased pesticide use due to increased pest pressures and
reductions in the efficacy of pesticides.

Impacts on Livestock

Changes in climate could affect animals both directly and indirectly.

 Heat waves, which are projected to increase under climate change, could directly threaten
livestock. In 2011, exposure to high temperature events caused over $1 billion in heat-related
losses to agricultural producers. Heat stress affects animals both directly and indirectly. Over
time, heat stress can increase vulnerability to disease, reduce fertility, and reduce milk
production.
 Drought may threaten pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality forage
available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience longer, more intense droughts,
resulting from higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation. For animals that rely on
grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also become a problem.

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  Climate change may increase the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect livestock. The
earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and pathogens to survive
more easily. In areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive.
 Potential changes in veterinary practices, including an increase in the use of parasitic and other
animal health treatments, are likely to be adopted to maintain livestock health in response to
climate-induced changes in pests, parasites, and microbes. This could increase the risk of
pesticides entering the food chain or lead to evolution of pesticide resistance, with subsequent
implications for the safety, distribution, and consumption of livestock and aquaculture products.
 Increases in carbon dioxide (CO2) may increase the productivity of pastures, but may also
decrease their quality. Increases in atmospheric CO2 can increase the productivity of plants on
which livestock feed. However, the quality of some of the forage found in pasturelands decreases
with higher CO2. As a result, cattle would need to eat more to get the same nutritional benefits.

Impacts on Fisheries

.The ranges of many fish and shellfish species may change. The three species shown in [the figure to the
left have moved northward by an average of 119 miles.

 Many aquatic species can find colder areas of streams and lakes or move north along the coast
or in the ocean. Nevertheless, moving into new areas may put these species into competition with
other species over food and other resources, as explained on the Ecosystems Impacts page.
 Some marine disease outbreaks have been linked with changing climate. Higher water
temperatures and higher estuarine salinities have enabled an oyster parasite to spread farther
north along the Atlantic coast. Winter warming in the Arctic is contributing to salmon diseases
in the Bering Sea and a resulting reduction in the Yukon Chinook Salmon, Finally, warmer
temperatures have caused disease outbreaks in coral, eelgrass, and abalone.
 Changes in temperature and seasons can affect the timing of reproduction and migration. Many
steps within an aquatic animal's lifecycle are controlled by temperature and the changing of the
seasons. For example, in the Northwest warmer water temperatures may affect the lifecycle of
salmon and increase the likelihood of disease. Combined with other climate impacts, these effects
are projected to lead to large declines in salmon populations.

In addition to warming, the world's oceans are gradually becoming more acidic due to increases in
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increasing acidity could harm shellfish by weakening their shells,
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which are created by removing calcium from seawater. [10] Acidification also threatens the structures of
sensitive ecosystems upon which some fish and shellfish rely.

What is global warming?

A: Here's a simple definition of global warming. (And yes, it's really happening.) Over the past 50 years,
the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. And experts see the
trend is accelerating: All but one of the 16 hottest years in NASA’s 134-year record have occurred since
2000.

Climate change deniers have argued that there has been a “pause” or a “slowdown” in rising global
temperatures, but several recent studies, including a 2015 paper published in the journal Science, have
disproved this claim. And scientists say that unless we curb global-warming emissions, average U.S.
temperatures could increase by up to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century.

Q: What causes global warming?

A: Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gases
collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s
surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space—but these pollutants, which can last for years
to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. That's what's known as
the greenhouse effect.

In the United States, the burning of fossil fuels to make electricity is the largest source of heat-trapping
pollution, producing about two billion tons of CO2 every year. Coal-burning power plants are by far the
biggest polluters. The country’s second-largest source of carbon pollution is the transportation sector,
which generates about 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emissions a year.

How global warming is linked to extreme weather?

A: Scientists agree that the earth’s rising temperatures are fueling longer and hotter heat waves, more
frequent droughts, heavier rainfall, and more powerful hurricanes. In 2015, for example, scientists said
that an ongoing drought in California—the state’s worst water shortage in 1,200 years—had been
intensified by 15 percent to 20 percent by global warming. They also said the odds of similar droughts
happening in the future had roughly doubled over the past century. And in 2016, the National Academies
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of Science, Engineering, and Medicine announced that it’s now possible to confidently attribute certain
weather events, like some heat waves, directly to climate change.

The earth’s ocean temperatures are getting warmer, too—which means that tropical storms can pick up
more energy. So global warming could turn, say, a category 3 storm into a more dangerous category 4
storm. In fact, scientists have found that the frequency of North Atlantic hurricanes has increased since
the early 1980s, as well as the number of storms that reach categories 4 and 5. In 2005, Hurricane
Katrina—the costliest hurricane in U.S. history—struck New Orleans; the second-costliest, Hurricane
Sandy, hit the East Coast in 2012.

The impacts of global warming are being felt across the globe. Extreme heat waves have caused tens of
thousands of deaths around the world in recent years. And in an alarming sign of events to come,
Antarctica has been losing about 134 billion metric tons of ice per year since 2002. This rate could speed
up if we keep burning fossil fuels at our current pace, some experts say, and causing sea levels to rise
several meters over the next 50 to 150 years.

What are the other effects of global warming?

A: Each year, scientists learn more about the consequences of global warming, and many agree that
environmental, economic, and health consequences are likely to occur if current trends continue. Here’s
just a smattering of what we can look forward to:

 Melting glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages
and increase the risk of wildfires in the American West.
 Rising sea levels will lead to coastal flooding on the Eastern Seaboard, especially in Florida, and
in other areas such as the Gulf of Mexico.
 Forests, farms, and cities will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy downpours, and
increased flooding. All those factors will damage or destroy agriculture and fisheries.
 Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and Alpine meadows could drive many plant and animal
species to extinction.
 Allergies, asthma, and infectious disease outbreaks will become more common due to increased
growth of pollen-producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution, and the spread of conditions
favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes.

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Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of
average weather of a specific region due to global warming. The world average temperature is rising due
to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide.
When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the
Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change
more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores.

Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of a generalized global change,
such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice. In other cases, a change may
be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system. In such cases, the regional effect
may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend. The increasing temperatures
from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years. There are three major ways
in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the
hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows
in the atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea
level rise.

The Arctic, Africa, small islands and Asian mega deltas are regions that are likely to be especially
affected by future climate change.[2] Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to climate variability
and change because of multiple existing stresses and low adaptive capacity. Climate change is projected
to decrease freshwater availability in central, south, east and Southeast Asia, particularly in large river
basins. With population growth and increasing demand from higher standards of living, this decrease
could adversely affect more than a billion people by the 2050s. Small islands, whether located in the
tropics or higher latitudes, are already exposed to extreme weather events and changes in sea level. This
existing exposure will likely make these areas sensitive to the effects of climate change.

Take Action

Curbing dangerous climate change requires very deep cuts in emissions, as well as the use of alternatives
to fossil fuels worldwide. The good news is that we’ve started a turnaround: CO2 emissions in the United
States actually decreased from 2005 to 2014, thanks in part to new, energy-efficient technology and the
use of cleaner fuels. And scientists continue to develop new ways to modernize power plants, generate
cleaner electricity, and burn less gasoline while we drive. The challenge is to be sure these solutions are
put to use and widely adopted.
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