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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Climate (disambiguation).

Atmospheric sciences

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 Atmospheric dynamics
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Climatology
 Climate
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 Climate variability and change
  Climate change
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Aeronomy
 Aeronomy
Glossaries
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 Glossary of tropical cyclone terms
 Glossary of tornado terms
 Glossary of climate change

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Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged

over 30 years.[1][2] More rigorously, it is the mean
and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from
months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are
commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of
the components of the climate system, including
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and
the interactions between them.[1] The climate of a location is affected by
its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water
bodies and their currents.[3]

Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables,

most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used
classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification.
The Thornthwaite system,[4] in use since 1948,
incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature
and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and
how climate change affects it. The major classifications in Thornthwaite's
climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal.
[5]
Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus
on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek

to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any
given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation.
[6]
Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the
19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include
non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores
—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are
mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change
may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. Recent
warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in
redistributions of biota. For example, as climate scientist Lesley Ann
Hughes has written: "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature
corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–
250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation.
Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards
the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones."[7][8]

Definition
[edit]
Climate (from Ancient Greek κλίμα 'inclination') is commonly defined as the
weather averaged over a long period.[9] The standard averaging period is
30 years,[10] but other periods may be used depending on the purpose.
Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the
magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition is as follows:

"Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather", or

more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and
variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to
thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined
by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are
most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind.
Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of
the climate system."[11]
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes "climate normals"
as "reference points used by climatologists to compare current
climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered typical. A
climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element
(e.g. temperature) over a 30-year period. A 30-year period is used as it is
long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El
Niño–Southern Oscillation, but also short enough to be able to show longer
climatic trends."[12]

The WMO originated from the International Meteorological

Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929.
At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, the technical commission designated the
thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for
climatological standard normals. In 1982, the WMO agreed to update
climate normals, and these were subsequently completed on the basis of
climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990.[13] The 1961–1990
climate normals serve as the baseline reference period. The next set of
climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010.[14] Aside
from collecting from the most common atmospheric variables (air
temperature, pressure, precipitation and wind), other variables such as
humidity, visibility, cloud amount, solar radiation, soil temperature, pan
evaporation rate, days with thunder and days with hail are also collected to
measure change in climate conditions.[15]

The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the

popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you
get."[16] Over historical time spans, there are a number of nearly constant
variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of
land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. All of these
variables change only over periods of millions of years due to processes
such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic:
the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (41 °F) warming of
the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.
[17]
Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a
more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects
solar heat absorption,[18] water retention, and rainfall on a regional level.
Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse
gases (particularly carbon dioxide and methane determines the amount of
solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global
cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the
interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad
outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical
climate change are concerned.[19][20]

Climate classification
[edit]
Main article: Climate classification

Worldwide Köppen climate classifications

Climate classifications are systems that categorize the world's climates. A
climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification, as
climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is
the Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1899.[21]

There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes.

Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather
depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods
can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of
climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate.
Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative
frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather
disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate
zones defined by plant hardiness,[22] evapotranspiration,[23] or more generally
the Köppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify
the climates associated with certain biomes. A common shortcoming of
these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries
between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate
properties more common in nature.

Record
[edit]
Paleoclimatology
[edit]
Main article: Paleoclimatology
Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of
the Earth's history. It uses evidence with different time scales (from
decades to millennia) from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, pollen, coral,
and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It demonstrates
periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether
changes follow patterns such as regular cycles.[24]
Modern
[edit]
See also: Instrumental temperature record and Satellite temperature
measurements
Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of
measurements from such weather instruments
as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few
centuries. The instruments used to study weather over the modern time
scale, their observation frequency, their known error, their immediate
environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must
be considered when studying the climate of centuries past.[25] Long-term
modern climate records skew towards population centres and affluent
countries.[26] Since the 1960s, the launch of satellites allow records to be
gathered on a global scale, including areas with little to no human
presence, such as the Arctic region and oceans.

Climate variability
[edit]
Main article: Climate variability and change
Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and
other characteristics of climate (such as chances or possibility of extreme
weather, etc.) "on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual
weather events."[27] Some of the variability does not appear to be caused
systematically and occurs at random times. Such variability is
called random variability or noise. On the other hand, periodic variability
occurs relatively regularly and in distinct modes of variability or climate
patterns.[28]

There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and

astronomical factors (barycenter changes, solar variation, cosmic
ray flux, cloud albedo feedback, Milankovic cycles), and modes of heat
distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In some cases,
current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be
masked by significant volcanic eruptions, impact events, irregularities
in climate proxy data, positive feedback processes
or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases.[29]

Over the years, the definitions of climate variability and the related
term climate change have shifted. While the term climate change now
implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s
the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate
variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies.[28]

Climate change
[edit]

Surface air temperature change over

the past 50 years.[30] Observed

temperature from NASA vs the 1850–1900 average used by the IPCC as
[31]

a pre-industrial baseline.[32] The primary driver for increased global

temperatures in the industrial era is human activity, with natural forces
adding variability.[33]
Main article: Climate change
See also: Global temperature record, List of weather records, and Extreme
event attribution
Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time.[34] It
reflects changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over
time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can
be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g.
variations in sunlight intensity) or human activities, as found recently.[35]
[36]
Scientists have identified Earth's Energy Imbalance (EEI) to be a
fundamental metric of the status of global change.[37]

In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term

"climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including
the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some
cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.[38]

Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four
major ice ages. These consist of glacial periods where conditions are
colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of
snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo,
reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower
atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as
by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an
interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the
positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the
solar output, and volcanism.[39] However, these naturally caused changes in
climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change
which is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities.
[40]

According to the EU's Copernicus Climate Change Service, average global

air temperature has passed 1.5C of warming the period from February
2023 to January 2024.[41]

Climate models
[edit]
Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and
transfer of radiative energy between the atmosphere,[42] oceans, land
surface and ice through a series of physics equations. They are used for a
variety of purposes, from the study of the dynamics of the weather and
climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance,
or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible)
electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave
(infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any imbalance results
in a change in the average temperature of the Earth.

Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from >100 km

to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models require significant
computational resources, and so only a few global datasets exist. Global
climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled to regional
climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale.
Examples are ICON[43] or mechanistically downscaled data such as
CHELSA (Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface
areas).[44][45]

The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have

been their use to infer the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These
models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature,
with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex. Simple radiant
heat transfer models treat the Earth as a single point and average outgoing
energy. This can be expanded vertically (as in radiative-convective
models), or horizontally. Finally, more complex (coupled) atmosphere–
ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations
for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[46]