General Physics II

Current, Resistance
We will now look at the situation where charges are in motion - electrodynamics. The major
difference between the static and dynamic cases is that E = 0 inside conductors for the static
case, but E ≠ 0 (i.e when a potential applied to the conductor) inside conductors for the
dynamic case. And, if E ≠ 0, then charges in the conductor feel a force (F = qE) and move in
response to that force.
In the static case E=0, there is no charge inside the
conductor. All charges are distributed over the
surface of the conductor. There exists a thermal
motion, and the average position of the charges
does not change (even though electrons will be
moving at approximately 105 m/s between
collisions when the temperature is 300 K.)

In the dynamic case: E ≠ 0:

When the electric field is present, the movement
of the charges caused by the electric field is
superimposed on the thermal motion, and there is
a net motion of the charges (in the direction of the
force exerted on the charges due to the electric
field – in the same direction as the E-field for
positive charges and in the opposite direction of V
the E-field for negative charges). The average
speed at which the charges move is called the drift velocity, vd. It is this flow of charge that we
will study.
The motion of electrons (negative charge) in a particular direction can be replaced
equivalently by the motion of positive charges in the opposite direction. In our discussion of
charge motion we will deal primarily with motion of positive charges.
Any device that supplies the energy to cause the charges to separate is referred to as an EMF
(electromotive force). The EMF produces the necessary electric field to cause the charges to
move, e.g., battery (chemical energy), generator (mechanical energy), etc. The electric field
produced by the battery causes the charges to move, and this motion of charges is called an
electric current.
Electric current and current density
Imagine a section of the wire above, with a cross-sectional area A and with charges flowing
with a velocity vd . The direction of current flow is taken as the direction in which positive
charges flow (even though in wires the negative charges, electrons, are the ones flowing).
The electric current is defined as the amount of charge crossing an imaginary boundary in the
wire per unit time:
amount of charge crossing a boundary
electric current =
time
It is mathematically defines as
dQ
I=
dt
[Q] 1 Coulomb
The units of current are: [I] = = ≡ 1 Ampere = 1 Amp = 1A
[t ] 1 second

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General Physics II

The value of the electric current in a wire is the same no matter how the cross-sectional area
of the wire might change.
I
I

Another quantity that is closely related to current and does depend on the cross sectional area
of the wire is current density J. The current density is the electric current per cross-sectional
area, that is,
dI dA
dI
J =
dA
When the current density is constant: J=I/A.
Now let's ask the seemingly harmless question, how fast are the
electrons going?

l l

vd vd Negative
Positive
E charges E charges
J J
I I

The speed of the electrons can be written as, υ =

t . The time can be found using the
definition of current as in example 1,
dQ Ne t Ne
I≡ ⇒ ∫ dQ = I ∫ dt ⇒ Ne = It ⇒ t = .
dt 0 0 I
I AI 1 J
Now the speed becomes, vd = = =
Ne N A e ne
Define the free electron density and the current density,
N
n≡ The Definition of Free Electron Density
vol
Example
What is the drift velocity of the electrons in a 2 mm diameter copper wire carrying a current
of 1 A? Take n = 8.5 x 1028 electrons per cubic meter for copper. Before making the
calculation, what is your guess?
J = I / A = 1/(π 2 ×10−3 ) 2 = 25330.3 A / m 2 ;
vd = J / ne = 25330.3 /(8.85*1028 *1.6*10−19 ) = (1.8*10-6 )m/s
This velocity is so small that it is hard to understand why a light bulb goes on almost instantly
when the switch is flipped. There is something we haven't accounted for in our model of
charge flow in conductors.

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General Physics II

Resistance and Resistivity

According to this model of current flow the charge will have a constant acceleration. Using
F qE eV
Newton's Second Law, ∑ F = ma ⇒ a = = = . If the acceleration is constant, the
m m m
speed will increase indefinitely. This contradicts the concept of a drift velocity.
Because collisions take place as the electrons move through the wires, we can say that the
wires are producing an impeding effect on the flow of those charges. This impeding effect is
called electrical resistance.
We must include collisions between the electrons and atoms. If we call τ the average time
between collisions, the average velocity of the electrons will roughly be υ ≈ aτ . Using the
acceleration above and the equation for drift velocity,
j eV I eV m
= τ⇒ = τ ⇒ V = I⋅ ⋅ .
ne m neA m τne2 A
Define the resistivity as,
m
ρ≡ The Definition of Resistivity
τne 2
Notice that ρ is dependent on microscopic properties of the conducting material. The
resistivity is difficult to calculate from these numbers, but it is not hard to measure. You will
find tables of resistivity values. Sometimes the conductivity is tabulated. Conductivity, σ, is
1
the reciprocal of the resistivity, σ ≡ . Now, V = I ⋅ρ . Define resistance as,
ρ A

R≡ρ The Definition of Resistance

A
Resistance takes into account the geometrical properties of the material. Finally we have
Ohm's Rule:
V = IR Ohm's Rule
[V] = 1 Volt ≡ 1 Ohm = 1 Ω
The units of resistance are: [R] =
[I ] 1 Amp
Some values of resistivity, ρ, and conductivity, σ = 1/ρ.

copper: ρ = 1.7 x 10-8 ohm m σ = 5.9 x 107 (ohm m)-1

carbon: ρ = 3.5 x 10-5 ohm m σ = 2.9 x 104 (ohm m)-1
glass: ρ ∼ 1012 ohm m σ ∼ 10-12 (ohm m)-1

We notice that the resistivity depends on temperature. How does the resistivity of various
types of materials change when the temperature is changed? Why? When the temperature of
the material is increased then the charges in the material gains the energy. For the temperature
dependence of the resistivity an approximate empirical expression can be written as:
ρ = ρ0 (1 + α (T − T0 ) )
here ρ 0 is resistivity of the material at the reference temperature T0. The quantity α is the
temperature coefficient of the resistivity.

Example

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General Physics II

Two conductors of the same material and length have different resistances. Conductor A
is a solid 1.00mm diameter wire. Conductor B is a tube of inner diameter 1.00mm and
outer diameter 2.00mm. Find the ratio of the resistances of conductor A to conductor B.
From the definition of resistance, R A ≡ ρ and
AA
Conductor A D1
RB ≡ ρ .
AB
The ratio is
Conductor B
ρ 2 2 2 2
RA AA AB 1
π(D − D ) 2 − 1
≡ = = 4 2 1
= = 3.00
4 πD 1
1 2
RB ρ AA 12 D1 D2
AB

Ohm’s Law
Our aim here to understand why metals obey Ohm’s
Law. We know that macroscopic relation is given by
V = IR
without further discussion we use the relations V=E.l and the relations between resistance and
resistivity and definition of the current density we obtain
E = ρJ
We can say that at constant temperature the resistivity of the material is independent to the
applied electric field E.(Ohm’s law, microscopic view)
We can calculate drift speed interms of the applied field E. Fron Newton’s second law:
eE
a=
m
Consider an electron that has just undergone a typical effective collision. In the average time
interval τ to the next collision, the electron will change its velocity in the direction of –E by
an amount of aτ :
eE
vd = aτ = τ
m
Then we can obtain another relation
eE J
vd = τ =
m ne
Remember E = ρ J , leads to
m
ρ= 2
ne τ
This is the microscopic Ohm’s law. Note that τ is independent from electric filed.

Exercises
In electrical circuits, E and J are not measured, but
E
V (voltage) and I (current) are. Look at the
relationship between these quantities. Consider a
length of the wire where an electric field E and the
resulting current density J are present. Find the
potential difference between points A and B, that is, A B
find VAB = VA – VB .

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General Physics II

Define resistance. What is the unit of the resistance.

Take a 1 m length of copper wire with a diameter of 2 mm carrying a current of 2 A at a

temperature of 20oC. What is the resistance of the wire, and what is the voltage between the
ends of the wire?

Suppose the temperature of the above wire is increased to 220oC. What is the new resistance?

Can you find the resistance of a truncated cone made from a material whose resistivity is ρ,
whose radii are a and b, and whose length is L? b
a

Energy Transfer in Circuits

The work required to move a charge dq through a potential difference V is dW = (dq)V.
Then, the power needed to accomplish this is

dW ⎛ dq ⎞ ⎛ dq ⎞
Power = P = = ⎜ ⎟ V , since I = ⎜ ⎟ , Power P = IV.
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
This is an expression that can be used for any circuit element. The units are amps.volts (A v)
= Watt (W).
Using Ohm's Rule, power can be written without V or without I:
V2
P = IV = = I 2R Electric Power
R

Example
The extension cord of example 3 is connected to a 110V source. Find the (a)power
supplied by the source, (b)power lost in the cord and (c)power supplied to the load.
(a)The electrical power supplied is P = IV = (25.0A)(110V) = 2750W .
(b)The power lost in the cord can be found from the voltage drop,
P = IV = (25.0A)(8.34V) = 209W .
The resistance of the cord could be used instead, P = I 2 R = (25.0A)2 (0.334 Ω) = 209W .
(c)By the Law of Conservation of Energy,
Psup ply = Pcord + Pload ⇒ Pload = Psup ply − Pcord = 2750 − 209 = 2540W .
Do you know why extension cords are rated for maximum length?

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General Physics II

Explain why power lines use high voltage instead of high current.

Summary
dQ
The Definition of Current I ≡
dt
N
The Definition of Free Electron Density n ≡
vol
I
The Definition of Current Density J =
A
Drift Velocity J = nevd
m
The Definition of Resistivity ρ ≡
τne 2
1
The definition of conductivity σ =
ρ
The Definition of Resistance R ≡ ρ
A
Ohm's Rule V = IR
2
V 2
Electric Power P = IV = =I R
R

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