Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Surveying
Subject Code: CE-303
Semester: 3rd
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UNIT WISE NOTES (III-SEM.)

UNIT-I
Surveying & Leveling : Basic Definitions of Surveying, Principles , Classification of surveying
,Methods of Linear Measurement Ranging , Accessories for linear measurement ,Chain
Surveying , Compass Surveying , Plane Table Surveying ,Correction and Errors Definition of
Leveling , types of leveling operations ,Principles , Problems , Computation of Area and
Volumes.
Introduction:

• “u e i g is defi ed as taki g a ge e al ie of, o se atio a d easu e e t

determining the boundaries, size, position, quantity, condition, value etc. of land, estates,
uildi g, fa s i es et . a d fi all p ese ti g the su e data i a suita le fo . This o e s
the work of the valuation surveyor, the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining
surveyor and so forth, as well as the land surveyor.

• A othe s hool of thought defi e su e i g as the a t of aki g easu e e t of the

relative position of natural and man- ade featu es o ea th s su fa e a d the p ese tatio of
this information either graphically or numerically. The process of surveying is therefore in three
stages namely:

(i) Taking a general view this part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to
obtain an overall picture of what is required before any type of survey work is undertaken. In
land surveying, this is achieved during the reconnaissance study.

(ii) Observation and Measurement This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any
survey, which in land surveying constitutes the measurement to determine the relative position
and sizes of natural and artificial features on the land.

(iii) Presentation of Data: The data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which
allows the information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others. This presentation
may take the form of written report, bills of quantities, datasheets, drawings and in land
surveying maps and plan showing the features on the land.

Types of Surveying On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or
not, surveying can be divided into two main categories:

Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. For small areas less than 250 km2 plane
surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as canal, railway, highway,
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building, pipeline, etc constructions, this type of surveying is used. It is worth noting that the
difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km and the subtended chord lying in the ea th s
surface is 7mm. Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a
sphe i al t ia gle diffe se o d fo a t ia gle o the ea th s su fa e ha i g a a ea of
km2.

Under revision geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the
true shape of the earth (spheroid). Classification of surveying Introduction For easy
understanding of surveying and the various components of the subject, we need a deep
understanding of the various ways of classifying it. Objective To enable the students have
understanding of the various ways of classifying surveying Classification Of Surveying Surveying
is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used, purpose, the area
surveyed and the method used.

Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used. Based on the instrument used; surveys can be
classified into;

i) Chain tape surveys

ii) Compass surveys
iii) Plane table surveys
iv) Theodolite surveys
Classification based on the surface and the area surveyed
i) Land survey Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be
subdivided into: (

a) Topographic survey: This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains, rivers, etc) and
manmade features (roads, houses, settle e ts… o the su fa e of the ea th.

(b) Cadastral survey is used to determining property boundaries including those of fields,
houses, plots of land, etc.

(c) Engineering survey is used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and
Execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings, etc.
Under revision

(d) City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and development of towns including
roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally referred to as city
survey.

(e) Marine or Hydrographic Survey: Those are surveys of large water bodies for navigation,
tidal monitoring, the construction of harbors etc.

(f) Astronomical Survey: Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies
(sun, moon, stars etc) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.
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CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF PURPOSE

i) Engineering survey

ii) Control Survey: Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced vertical and
horizontal control points.

iii) Geological Survey Geological survey is used to determine the structure and arrangement of
rock strata. Generally, it enables to know the composition of the earth.

iv) Military or Defense Survey is carried out to map places of military and strategic importance

v) Archeological survey is carried out to discover and map ancient/relies of antiquity.

Classification Based On Instrument Used

i. Chain/Tape Survey: This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement using a chain
or tape with no angular measurements made.

ii. Compass Survey: Here horizontal angular measurements are made using magnetic compass
with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.

iii. Plane table survey: This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the measurements and
drawings made at the same time using a plane table.

iv. Leveling This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the
ea th s su fa e sho i g the i aps, pla e a d ha ts as e ti al se tio s o ith
conventional symbols.

v. Theodolite Survey: Theodolite survey takes vertical and horizontal angles in order to establish
controls.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD USED

1. Triangulation Survey In order to make the survey, manageable, the area to be surveyed is
first covered with series of triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then
the details under revision fixed in relation to the established lines. This process is called
triangulation. The triangle is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely over an
irregularly shaped area with minimum space left.

2. Traverse survey: If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is
possible to establish the position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and
distances of other surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points
linked with lines linking them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing these lines,
is called traversing, while the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. Joining two
while bearing and distance is known as traverse. A traverse station is each of the points of the
traverse, while the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive stations.

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Traverses may either be open or closed.

1. Closed Traverse: When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the
fi ishi g poi t oi ides ith the sta ti g poi t of a su e , it is alled as a losed t a e se ;
here ABCDEA represents a closed traverse.

(a) Closed traverse is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, forests etc.

2. Open Traverse: When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and
does ot etu to the sta ti g poi t, it is k o as ope t a e se o u losed t a e se .

(b) Open traverse is suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYORS: surveying is made up of various specializations known as

sectors or classes as shown below:

1. General Practice Surveyors:

• “u e o s u de this lass a e ostl o e ed ith aluatio a d i est e t. Valuatio

surveyors deal with property markets, land and property values, valuation procedures and
property law. Investment surveyors help investors to get the best possible return form
property.

• The ha dle a sele tio of p ope ties fo pu hase o sale pe sio fu ds, i su a e
companies, charities and other major investors. They also specialize in housing policy advice,
housing development and management.

2. Planning and Development Surveyors

• The a e o e ed ith p epa i g pla i g appli atio s a d egotiati g ith lo al

autho ities planners to obtain planning permission.

3. Building Surveyors

• Thei o k i ol es ad isi g o the o st u tio , ai te a ce, repair of all types of

residential and commercial property.

• The a al sis of uildi g defe ts is a i po ta t pa t of a uildi g su e o s discipline.

4. The Quantity Surveyors

• The e aluate p oje t ost a d ad i e o alte ati e p oposals. The also Under revision
ensure that each element of a project agrees with the cost plan allowance and that the overall
project remains within budget.

5. Rural Practice Surveyors:

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• “u e o s i u al p a ti e ad i e la d o e s, fa e s a d othe s ith i te ests in the

country side.

• The a e espo si le fo the a age e t of ou t estates a d fa s, the pla i g a d

execution of development schemes for agriculture, forestation, recreation, sales of properties
and live stock. 6. Mineral Surveyors

• The plan the development and future of mineral workings. They work with local authorities
and the land owners on planning applications and appeals, mining laws and working rights,
mining subsidence and damage, the environmental effects of land and deep underground
mines.

Land surveyors:

They measure land and its physical features accurately and record them in the form of a map
or plan for the purpose of planning new building and by local authorities in managing roads,
housing estates, and other facilities. They also undertake the positioning and monitoring for
construction works. Under revision

BRANCHES OF SURVEYING

1. Aerial Surveying: Aerial surveys are undertaken by using photographs taken with special
cameras mounted in an aircraft viewed in pairs. The photographs produce three dimensional
images of ground features from which maps or numerical data can be produced usually with
the aid of stereo plotting machines and computers.

2. Hydrographic Surveying (Hydro-Survey) : Hydro survey is undertaken to gather information in

the marine environment such as mapping out the coast lines and sea bed in order to produce
navigational charts. It is also used for off shore oil exploration and production, design,
construction and maintenance of harbors, inland water routes, river and sea defense, pollution
control and ocean studies.

3. Geodetic Survey: in geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved usually on
national basis where survey stations are precisely located large distances apart. Account is
taken of the curvature of the earth, hence it involves advanced under revision mathematical
theory and precise measurements are required to be made. Geodetic survey stations can be
used to map out entire continent, measure the size and shape of the earth or in carrying out
s ie tifi studies su h as dete i atio of the Ea th s ag eti field a d di e tio of
continental drifts.

4. Plane Surveying: In plane surveying relatively small areas are involved and the area under
consideration is taken to be a horizontal plane. It is divided into three branches. - Cadastral
surveying - Topographical surveying - Engineering surveying

5. Cadastral surveying: These are surveys undertaken to define and record the boundary of
properties, legislative area and even countries. It may be almost entirely topographical where
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features define boundaries with the topographical details appearing on ordinance survey maps.
In the other hand, markers define boundaries; corner or line points and little account may be
taken of the topographical features. Under revision

6. Topographical Survey: these are surveys where the physical features on the earth are
measured and maps/plans prepared to show their relative positions both horizontally and
vertically. The relative positions and shape of natural and man –made features over an area are
established usually for the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing
geographical information system.

7. Engineering Survey: these are surveys undertaken to provide special information for
construction of Civil Engineering and building projects. The survey supply details for a particular
engineering schemes and could include setting out of the work on the ground and dimensional
control on such schemes. Under revision

Reconnaissance: This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may be

either ground reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey. Reconnaissance is made on
arrival to site during which an overall picture or view of the area is obtained. The most suitable
position of stations is selected, the purpose of the survey and the accuracy required will be
drawn, and finally the method of observation will be established. Objectives of reconnaissance

1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through the area.

2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map

3. To estimate probable cost and draft a report. The basic principles and process surveying
Introduction So far, we have discussed the meaning, object and major classifications of
surveying. Now let us move further to discuss the basic principles and process of surveying.
Objectives · To enable students understand the basic principles of surveying. · To expose the
students to the process of surveying.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART

• It is a fu da e tal ule to al a s o k f o the hole to the pa t. This i plies a p e ise

control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail surveying.

• This su e i g p i iple i ol es la i g do a o e all s ste of statio s hose positio s

are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of details between
the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods.

• O e the o e all size has ee dete i ed, the s alle a eas a e su e ed i the
knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main overall
frame.

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• E o s hi h a inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the control
points and can be adjusted to it. Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which
should be taken into consideration to enable one get good results.

(a) Working from the whole to the part is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a
number of spaced out control point called primary control points called primary control points
whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision using sophisticated
equipments. Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles are drawn.
Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps with lesser precision than the
primary control points. At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary control points at closer
intervals are finally established to fill in the smaller gaps. The main purpose of surveying from
the whole to the part is to localize the errors as working the other way round would magnify
the errors and introduce distortions in the survey. In partial terms, these principles involve
covering the area to be surveyed with large triangles. These are further divided into smaller
triangles and the process continues until the area has been sufficiently covered with small
triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a local level. Error is in the whole
operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using higher precision instruments.

(b) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points. Given two points whose
length and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can be drawn to join them hence
surveying has control reference points. The locations of various other points and the lines
joining them can be fixed by measurements made from these two points and the lines joining
them. For an example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be
performed to fix other points.

i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).

ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C. Under revision

iii) To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure angle ABC.

iv) To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of the sides AC
and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle.

Fixing the third points using two points The process of surveying: The survey process passes
through 3 main phases – the reconnaissance, field work and measurements, and, the office
work.

(a) Reconnaissance survey: This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires taking
an overall inspection of the area to be surveyed to obtain a general picture before
commencement of any serious survey. Walking through the site enables one to understand the
terrain and helps in determining the survey method to be adopted, and the scale to be used.
The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the successful planning and execution of
the survey.

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(b) Field work and measurement: This is the actual measurements in the field and the
recordings in the field notebook. To get the best results in the field, the surveyor must be
acquainted with the functions of the equipments and take good care of them.

(c) Office work: This is the post field work stage in which data collected and recordings in the
field notebooks are decoded and used to prepare the charts, planes and maps for presentation
to the clients and the target audience. Under revision

CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS

• The se o d p i iple is that; all su e o k ust e he ked i su h a a that a e o ill

be apparent before the survey is completed.

• Co e t atio a d a e a e e essa i o de to e su e that all e essa easu es a e

taken to the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted. Hence they must be
maintained in the field at all times.

• “u e o o site should e he ki g the o e t ess of his o o k a d that of othe s hi h

is based on his information.

• Che k should e o sta tly arranged on all measurements wherever possible. Check
measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can be moved, sight
rails altered etc.

• “u e e o ds a d o putatio s su h as field otes, le el ooks, field ooks, setti g out

record books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and diagrams so that the
survey data can be clearly understood by others. Untidy and anonymous figures in the field
books should be avoided.

• Like field o k, o putatio s should e arefully planned and carried out in a systemic
manner and all field data should be properly prepared before calculations start.Where possible,
standardized tables and forms should be used to simplify calculations. If the result of a
computation has not been checked, it is considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent
checks should be applied to every calculation procedure.

• As a he k, the dista es et ee statio s a e easu ed as the a e plotted, to see that

there is correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure to match indicates an
error in plotting or during the survey.

• If he ks a e ot do e o o se atio s, e pe si e istake a o u . It is al a s p efe a le

to take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will resolve itself at the
plotting stage.

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ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers when quoting
specifications for their equipments and on site by surveyors to describe results obtained from
field work.

• A ua allo s a e tai a ou t of tole a e eithe plus or minus) in a measurement,

while;

• P e isio de a ds e a t easu e e t. “i e the e is o su h thi gs as a a solutel e a t

measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small deviations
from the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.

ECONOMY OF ACCURACY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHOICE OF EQUIPMENTS

• “u e o k is usuall des i ed as ei g to a e tai sta da d of a u a hi h i tu is

suited to the work in hand. Bearing in mind the purpose for which the survey is being made, it is
better to achieve a high degree of accuracy than to aim for precision (exactness) which if it
were to be altered would depend not only on the instrument used but also on the care taken by
the operator to ensure that his work was free from mistake.

• Al a s e e e that, the g eate the effo t a d ti e eeded oth i the field a d i the
office, the more expensive survey will be for the client. The standard accuracy attained in the
field must be in keeping with the size of the ultimate drawings.

• The e uip e t sele ted should e app op iate to the test i ha d. A i po ta t fa to he

selecting equipment is that the various instruments should produce roughly the same order of
precision. A steel chain best at an accuracy of 1/500 to 1/1000 would be of little use for work
requiring an accuracy of 1/1000. Similarly, the theodolite reading to one second would be
pointless where a reading to one minute is sufficient.

• Ha i g sele ted the e uip e t e essa y, the work should be thoroughly checked and if
found wanting should be adjusted, repaired or replaced or have allowance calculated for its
deficiencies. This task will be less tedious if field equipment is regularly maintained. Horizontal
Distance Measurement One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the
dista e et ee t o poi ts o the ea th s su fa e fo use i fi i g positio , set out a d i
scaling. Usually spatial distance is measured. In plane surveying, the distances measured are
reduced to their equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedures used to make the
under revision measurement or by applying numerical corrections for the slope distance
(spatial distance). The method to be employed in measuring distance depends on the required
accuracy of the measurement, and this in turn depends on purpose for which the measurement
is intended.

Tachometry: -distance can be can be measured indirectly by optical surveying instruments like
theodolite. The method is quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for many types of surveying
operations.
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Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or chain.
Steel tapes are most commonly used .It is available in lengths varying from 15m to 100m.
Formerly on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured with chains.

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): - are indirect distance measuring instruments that
work using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic waves in vacuum. They have high
degree of accuracy and are effectively used for long distances for modern surveying operations.
Under revision

CHAIN SURVEYING this is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear
measurements only. It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although
not necessarily with a chain.

EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

These equipments can be divided into three, namely

(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)
(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney
level, li o ete s , cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).

1. Chain: - The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter
links. It is designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and
offsets of small surveys. Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to
centre of each middle connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally
markers made of plastic or brass are attached at every whole meter position or at each tenth
link. To avoid confusion in reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m
and 18m is the same) so that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain
There are three different types of chains used in taking measurement namely: i. Engineers chain
U de e isio ii. Gu te s hai iii “teel a ds

2 Steel Bands: This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar to
those on the chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate but less robust than the
chain. The operating tension and temperature for which it was graduated should be indicated
on the band.

3 Tapes: Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the
setting out of buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in meters, centimeter and
millimeters. Tapes are classified into three types;

i. Linen or Linen with steel wire woven into the fabric; these tapes are liable to stretch in
use and should be frequently tested for length. They should never be used on work for
which great accuracy is required.
ii. Fiber Glass Tapes: These are much stronger than lines and will not stretch in use.

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iii. Steel tapes: These are much more accurate, and are usually used for setting out
buildings and structural steel works. Steel tapes are available in various lengths up to
100m (20m and 30m being the most common) encased in steel or plastic boxes with a
recessed winding lever or mounted on open frames with a folding winding lever.

4. Arrows: Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking
temporary stations. A piece of colored cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached or tied to
the end of the arrow to be clearly seen on the field. Under revision

5. Pegs: Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used
for points which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey
lines. Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.

6. Ranging Rod: These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with
characteristic red and white bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed steel
shoe to enable them to be driven into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines
with the tape, and for marking any points which need to be seen.

7. Optical Square: This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line.
It is used where greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using
two mirrors and the other a prism. Under revision

• The i o ethod is o st u ted ased o the fa t that a a of light is efle ted f o a

mirror at the same angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.

• The p is s ua e ethod is a si plified fo m of optical square consisting of a single prism. It

is used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.

8 Cross Staff: This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and
narrow slit in each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is
at normal eye level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.

9. Clinometers this instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle).
The a e of se e al fo , the o o fo is the WATKING “ CLINOMETE‘, hi h o sist of a
small disc of about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made to hang free
and by sighting across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than
Abney level. Under revision

10 Abney Level This instrument is generally used to obtained roughly the slope angle of the
ground. It consists of a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a
graduated arc attached. A small bubble is fixed to the venire arm, once the image of the bubble
is seen reflected in the eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the
reading glass.

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NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and
wiped with an oily rag.

2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to enable them to be
seen clearly on the field.

3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.

4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be
indicated.

5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.

6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY

1. Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position
of features and the shape of the area.

2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to
mark the stations selected.

3. Station Marking: Station marks, where possible should be tied - in to a permanent objects so
that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground
wooden pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.

4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station
showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and
designation. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the
station point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at
much later date even by others after a long interval.

5. Offsetting:- Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles
on the chain line.

6. Ranging: Ranging involves placing ranging poles along the route to be measures so as to get
a straight line. The poles are used to mark the stations and in between the stations.

ERRORS IN SURVEYING

• “u e i g is a p o ess that i ol es o se atio s a d easu e e ts ith a ide a ge of

electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very sophisticated.

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• Despite the est e uip e ts a d ethods used, it is still i possi le to take o se atio s that
are completely free of small variations caused by errors which must be guided against or their
effects corrected.

TYPES OF ERRORS

1. Gross Errors

• These a e efe ed to istakes o lu de s eithe the su e o o his assista ts due to

carelessness or incompetence.

• O o st u tio sites, istakes a e f e ue tl ade i – experienced Engineers or

surveyors who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are using.

• These t pes of e o s i lude is ou ti g the u e of tapes le gth, o g ooki g,

sighting wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly,
displacement of arrows or station marks etc.

• Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or plotting
and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected.

• G oss e o s a e eli i ated o l a eful ethods of o se i g ooki g a d o stantly

checking both operations. 2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors

• These e o s a e u ulati e i effe t a d a e aused adl adjusted i st u e t a d the

physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect. Expansion of
steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument, etc are just
some of these errors.

• “ ste ati e o s ha e the sa e ag itude a d sig i a se ies of easu e e ts that a e

repeated under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or positively to the reading
hence, makes the readings shorter or longer. Under revision

• This t pe of e o a e eli i ated f o a easu e e t usi g o e tio s e.g. effe t of

tension and temperature on steel tape).

• A othe ethod of e o i g s ste ati e o s is to ali ate the o se i g e uip e t and

ua tif the e o allo i g o e tio s to e ade to fu the o se atio s. • O se atio al
procedures by re-measuring the quantity with an entirely different method using different
instrument can also be used to eliminate the effect of systematic errors. 3. Random or
Compensating Errors

• Although e e p e autio a e take e tai u a oida le e o s al a s e ist i a

measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments.

• ‘a do e o s a ot e e o ed f o o se ation but methods can be adopted to ensure

that they are kept within acceptable limits.
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• I o de to a al ze a do e o s o a ia le, statisti al p i iples ust e used a d i

surveying their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of observations and finding
their mean. It is therefore important to assume those random variables are normally
distributed.

Corrections to Linear Measurement and their Application:- The following corrections are to be
applied to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape where such accuracy is required. (i)
Pull correction,

(ii) Temperature correction

(iii) Standard length correction

(iv) Sag correction

(v) Slope correction

(vi) Mean sea level correction.

Pull Correction :- A chain or tape of nominal length L ha i g oss se tio al a ea of the li k o

that of a tape, as the case may be, equal to A and standardized under a pull Ps is employed to
easu e a le gth at a pull PF. If You g s odulus of elasti it of the ate ial is E the e te sio
of its length is = AE PS (PF )L The recorded length is less than the actual by this extension. The
error is here, -ve, the actual length is obtained by adding the extension to L. the correction is
+ve. If PF is less than PS the error will be +ve and correction –ve.

Temperature Correction :- A hai o a tape of o i al le gth L sta da dized at te pe atu e

TS and having cross sectional area A is employed to measured length at temperature TF being
the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the chain or tape per unit rise of
temperature , F – TS)L. If TF is more than TS, recorded length is less than the actual by the
amount of extension. The error is –ve and the correction to the length L is +ve by the amount of
extension. If the field temperature TF is less than TS the error is =+ve and the corrections is –ve.
Under revision Sag Correction :- In case of suspended measurement across a span L the chain or
tape sag to take the form of curve known as catenary.

(1) Reconnaissance is the most important aspect of any well-designed surveying project. Its
main function is to ensure the best positions for the survey stations commensurate with well-
conditioned figures, ease of access to the stations and economy of observation. A careful study
of all existing maps or plans of the area is essential. The best position for the survey stations
can be drawn on the plan and the overall shape of the network studied. While chains of single
triangles are the most economic to observe, braced quadrilaterals provide many more
conditions of adjustment and are at their strongest when square shaped.

(2) Stations must be constructed for long-term stability .A complete referencing of the station
should then be carried out in order to ensure its location at a future date.

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(3) As already stated, the type of target used will depend on the length of sight involved and
the accuracy required for highly precise networks, the observations may be carried out at night
when refraction is minimal. In such a case, signal lamps would be the only type of target to use.
For short sights it may be possible to use the precise targets shown in Figure 13.1 Whatever
form the target takes, the essential considerations are that it should be capable of being
accurately centered over the survey point and afford the necessary size and shape for accurate
bisection at the observation distances used.

(4) In triangulation the method of directions would inevitably be used and the horizon closed.
An appropriate number of sets would be taken on each face. The base line and Under revision
check base would most certainly be measured by EDM, with all the necessary corrections made
to ensure high accuracy.

(5) Since the use of computers is now well established, there is no reason why a least squares
adjustment using the standard variation of coordinates method should not be carried out.
Alte ati el the a gles a e ala ed si ple , less igo ous ethods k o as e ual
shifts .

On completion, the sides may be computed using the sine rule and finally the coordinates of
each survey point obtained. If the survey is to be connected to the national mapping system of
the country, then all the baseline measurements must be reduced to MSL and multiplied by the
local scale factor. As many of the national survey points as possible should be included in the
scheme.

Overcoming obstacles during chaining:

classified the various types of obstacles encountered in the course of chaining into three ·
Obstacles which obstruct ranging but not chaining · Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not
ranging · Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining Obstacles that obstruct ranging but
not chaining Such a problem arises when a rising ground or a jungle area interrupts the chain
line. Here the end stations are not intervisible.

There may be two cases:-

Case I: The end stations may be visible from some intermediate points on the rising ground. In
this case, reciprocal ranging is resorted to and the chaining is done by the stepping method.

Case II: The end stations are not visible from intermediate points when a jungle area comes
across the chain line.

COMPASS SURVEYING

Introduction: Another type of survey instrument that forms the subject of this section is the
compass. Here, we will explain the meaning, types of compass survey and also introduce and
discus the concept of bearing.

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Objectives: - to introduce the students to the meaning and types of compass survey · To enable
students understand the concept of bearing. Meaning and types of compass survey In compass
survey, the direction of the survey line is measured by the use of a magnetic compass while the
lengths are by chaining or taping. Where the area to be surveyed is comparatively large, the
compass survey is preferred, whereas if the area is small in extent and a high degree of
accuracy is desired, then chain survey is adopted. However, where the compass survey is used,
care must be taken to make sure that magnetic disturbances are not present. The two major
primary types of survey compass are: the prismatic compass and surveyors compass surveys are
mainly used for the rapid filling of the detail in larger surveys and for explanatory works. It does
not provide a very accurate determination of the bearing of a line as the compass needle aligns
itself to the ea th s ag eti field hi h does ot p o ide a o sta t efe e e poi t.

THE PRISMATIC COMPASS

This is an instrument used for the measurement of magnetic bearings. It is small and portable
usually carried on the hand. This Prismatic Compass is one of the two main kinds of magnetic
compasses included in the collection for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearings, with the
other being the Surveyor's Compass. The main difference between the two instruments is that
the surveyor's compass is usually larger and more accurate instrument, and is generally used on
a stand or tripod.

• The p is ati o pass o the othe ha d is ofte a s all i st u e t hi h is held i the ha d

for observing, and is therefore employed on the rougher classes of work. The graduations on
this prismatic compass are situated on a light aluminum ring fastened to the needle, and the
zero of the graduations coincides with the south point of the needle. The graduations therefore
remain stationary with the needle, and the index turns with the sighting vanes. Since the circle
is read at the observer's (rather than the target's) end, the graduations run clockwise from the
south end of the needle (0º to 360º), whereas in the surveyor's compass, the graduations run
anti-clockwise from north.

• The p is ati atta h e t o sists of a º efle ti g p is ith the e e a d eadi g fa es

made slightly convex so as to magnify the image of the graduations. The prism is carried on a
mounting which can be moved up and down between slides fixed on the outside of the case.

• The pu pose of this up-and-down movement is to provide an adjustment for focusing. The
image of the graduations is seen through a small circular aperture in the prism mounting, and
immediately above this aperture is a small V cut on under revision top of the mounting, over
which the vertical wire in the front vane may be viewed. Using the V cut, the vertical wire and
the station whose bearing is required are viewed in one line; the bearing is directly read off the
graduated arc at the point immediately underneath the vertical wire.

• The i o lo ated i f o t of the fo a d a e slides up a d do the a e, a d is hi ged to

fold flat over it or to rest inclined at any angle with it. This mirror is used for solar observations,
or for viewing any very high object, and is not a normal fitting to a compass. The two circular

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discs in front of the back vane are dark glasses which can be swung in front of the vane when
solar observations are being taken.

COMPONENTS OF A PRISMATIC COMPASS

Prismatic compass consists of a non-magnetic metal case with a glass top and contain the
following: Elements of prismatic compass Cylindrical metal box: Cylindrical metal box is having
diameter of 8to 12 cm.

It protects the compass and forms entire casing or body of the compass. It protect compass
from dust, rain etc. pivot is provided at the center of the compass and supports freely฀
suspended magnetic needle over it.

Lifting pin and lifting lever: a lifting pin is provided just below the sight vane. When the sight
vane is folded, it presses the lifting pin. The lifting pin with the help of lifting lever then lifts the
magnetic needle out of pivot point to prevent damage to the pivot head. Magnetic needle:
Magnetic needle is the heart of the instrument. This needle measures angle of a line from
magnetic meridian as the needle always remains pointed towards north south pole at two ends
of the needle when freely suspended on any support. Graduated circle or ring: This is an
aluminum graduated ring marked with 0o฀ to 360o to measures all possible bearings of lines,
and attached with the magnetic needle. The ring is graduated to half a degree.

Prism: prism is used to read graduations on ring and to take exact reading by฀ compass. It is
placed exactly opposite to object vane. The prism hole is protected by prism cap to protect it
from dust and moisture. Object vane: object vane is diametrically opposite to the prism and
eye vane. The object vane is carrying a horse hair or black thin wire to sight object in line with
eye sight. Eye vane: Eye vane is a fine slit provided with the eye hole at bottom to bisect the
object from slit. Glass cover: its covers the instrument box from the top such that needle and
graduated ring is seen from the top. Sun glasses: These are used when some luminous objects
are to be bisected. Reflecting mirror: It is used to get image of an object located above or below
the instrument level while bisection. It is placed on the object vane. Spring break or brake pin:
to damp the oscillation of the needle before taking a reading and to bring it to rest quickly, the
light spring break attached to the box is brought in contact with the edge of the ring by gently
pressing inward the brake pin Under revision

Temporary adjustment of prismatic compass The following procedure should be adopted after
fixing the prismatic compass on the tripod for measuring the bearing of a line. Centering:
Centering is the operation in which compass is kept exactly over the station from where the
bearing is to be determined. The centering is checked by dropping a small pebble from the
underside of the compass. If the pebble falls on the top of the peg then the centering is correct,
if not then the centering is corrected by adjusting the legs of the tripod.

Leveling : Leveling of the compass is done with the aim to freely swing the graduated circular
ring of the prismatic compass. The ball and socket arrangement on the tripod will help to

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achieve a proper level of the compass. This can be checked by rolling round pencil on glass
cover.

Focusing: the prism is moved up or down in its slide till the graduations on the aluminum ring
are seen clear, sharp and perfect focus. The position of the prism will depend upon the vision of
the observer.

OPERATION PROCEDURE

• ‘e o e the o e a d ope out the p is a d i do , holdi g the o pass as le el as

possible.

• The fo us the p is aisi g o lo e i g its ase u til the di isio s appea sha p a d lea .
If necessary with the needle on to its pivot.

• Holdi g the o pass o ith the thu u de the p is a d the fo efi ge ea the stud,
sight through the objector station lowering the eye to read the required bearing as soon as the
needle comes to rest naturally.

• The ea i g ead ill e a fo a d ea i g a d o all a hole i le ea i g lo k ise

angle between 0o to 360o.

“u e o s Co pass:

Similar to the prismatic compass but with few modifications, the surveyors compass is an old
form of compass used by surveyors. It is used to determine the magnetic bearing of a given line
and is usually used in connection with the chain or compass survey. Bearing The bearing is the
angular direction measured clockwise starting from North with reference to the observer. The
reference north may be true or magnetic. While the true bearing is the angular direction
measured in a place with the direction of true or geographical north; the magnetic bearing is
the angle which it makes with the direction of Magnetic North measured in the clockwise
direction.

Back and fore bearing:

Introduction:

In this section, we will examine the back and fore bearing; and the steps to be taken when
traversing with compass survey. Back and fore bearing Fore bearing is the compass bearing of a
place taken from a status to the other in the direction that the survey is being carried out. The
back bearing in the other hand is the bearing in the opposite direction i.e. the bearing taken
backwards from the next station to its preceding station that the fore bearing was taken. The
difference between BB and FB is always 180o. Back and fore bearing If B is sighted from an
observer at A, and the NS and N1S1 are the magnetic NS lines, then Forward bearing (FB) = < N
A S + < S A B Back bearing BA = < N1 B A :. Back Bearing BA = Forward Bearing AB - 1800 If the
observer relocates to B and observers B, then forward bearing (FB) BA = < N1 BA and back
bearing (AB) = < NAS + SAB. Hence, we can conclude that Forward Bearing = < N1 B A + 180 0 . As
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a general rule, if the Fore Bearing is less than 1800, add 1800 to get the Back. Bearing, and if the
Fore Bearing is greater than 1800, then subtract 1800 to get the Back Bearing.

Traversing and plotting with the compass survey: Traversing with the compass involves taking
the bearing along a series of connecting straight lines and in the same time measuring the
distances with the tape. The compass is read at each point and a back bearing is equally taken
to serve as a check. This continues until the traverse closes. Choosing a suitable scale, the
traverse is then plotted taking into consideration the general shape of the area. Observing
Bearing of Line Consider a line AB of which the magnetic bearing is to be taken. By fixing the
ranging rod at station B we get the magnetic bearing of needle w.r.t north pole.

The enlarged portion gives actual pattern of graduations marked on ring.

Designation of bearing The bearing are designated in the following two system:-

1) Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B

2) Quadrantal Bearing System.(Q.B)

Whole circle bearing system (W.C.B.) The bearing of a line measured with respect to magnetic
meridian in clockwise direction is called magnetic bearing and its value varies between 0ᴼ to
360ᴼ. The quadrant start from north and progress in a clockwise direction as the first quadrant
is 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ in clockwise direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ , 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is 4th
one.

Quadrantal bearing system (Q.B.) In this system, the bearing of survey lines are measured wrt
to north line or south line whichever is the nearest to the given survey line and either in
clockwise direction or in anti clockwise direction.

Reduced bearing (R.B) When the whole circle bearing is converted into Quadrantal bearing , it
is termed as ‘EDUCED BEA‘ING .

Thus, the reduced bearing is similar to the Quadrantal bearing.

I flue e aused a oida le ag eti su sta e does t o e u de lo al att a tio su h as

instrument, watch wrist, key etc Detection of Local attraction By observing the both bearings
of line (F.B. & B.B.) and noting the difference (1800 in case of W.C.B. & equal magnitude in case
of R.B.) We confirm the local attraction only if the difference is not due to observational
errors. If detected, that has to be eliminated Two methods of elimination First method
Second method First method Difference of B.B. & F.B. of each lines of traverse is checked to
note if they differ by correctly or not. The one having correct difference means that bearing
measured in those stations are free from local attraction Correction is accordingly applied to
rest of station. If none of the lines have correct difference between F.B. & B.B., the one with
minimum error is balanced and repeat the similar procedure. Diagram is good friend again to
solve the numerical problem. Under revision Second method Based on the fact that the interior
angle measured on the affected station is right.

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All the interior angles are measured Check of interior angle – sum of interior angles = (2n-4) x
right angle, where n is number of traverse side Errors are distributed and bearing of lines are
calculated with the corrected angles from the lines with unaffected station.

Checks in closed Traverse Errors in traverse is contributed by both angle and distance
measurement Checks are available for angle measurement but There is no check for distance
measurement For precise survey, distance is measured twice, reverse direction second time
Checks for angular error are available Interior angle, sum of interior angles = (2n-4) x right
angle, where n is number of traverse side Exterior angle, sum of exterior angles = (2n+4) x right
angle, where n is number of traverse side Under revision Deflection angle – algebraic sum of
the deflection angle should be 00 or 360 .

Bearing – The fore bearing of the last line should be equal to its back bearing ± 180 measured at
the initial statio . ß should e = θ + under revision

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Principle: - The principle of plane tabling is parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn from
stations to objects on the paper are parallel to the lines from the stations to the objects on the
ground. The relative positions of the objects on the ground are represented by their plotted
positions on the paper and lie on the respective rays. The table is always placed at each of the
successive stations parallel to the position it occupied at the starting station. Plane tabling is a
graphical method of surveying there the field work and plotting are done simultaneously and
such survey does not involve the use of a field book. Plane table survey is mainly suitable for
filling interior details when traversing is done by theodolite sometimes traversing by plane table
may also be done. But this survey is recommended for the work where great accuracy is not
required. As the fitting and fixing arrangement of this instrument is not perfect, most accurate
work cannot be expected. Accessories of Plane Table :- 1. The Plane Table: - The plane table is a
drawing board of size 750 mm x 600 mm made of well seasoned wood like teak, pine etc. The
top surface of the table is well leveled. The bottom surface consists of a threaded circular plate
for fixing the table on the tripod stand by a wing nut. The plane table is meant for fixing a
drawing sheet over it.

The positions of the objects are located on this sheet by drawing rays and plotting to any
suitable scale.

2. The Alidade: - There are two types of alidade. Under revision (i) Plain (ii) Telescopic.

(a) Plain Alidade: - The plain alidade consists of a metal or wooden ruler of length about 50 cm.
One of its edges is beveled and is known as the fiducially edge. It consists of two vanes at both
ends which are hinged with the ruler. One is kno as the o je t a e a d a ies a ho se
hai , the othe is alled the sight a e a d is p o ided ith a a o slit.

(b) Telescopic Alidade: - The telescopic alidade consists of a telescope meant for inclined sight
or sighting distant objects clearly. This alidade has no vanes at the ends, but is provided with

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fiducially edge. The function of the alidade is to sight objects. The rays should be drawn along
the fiducially ends.

3. The Spirit Level: - The spirit level is a small metal tube containing a small bubble of spirit. The
bubble is visible on the top along a graduated glass tube. The spirit level is meant for leveling
the plane table.

4. The Compass:-

There are two kinds of compass.

(a) the trough compass and

(b) The circular box compass.

(a) The Trough Compass: - The trough compass is a rectangular box made of non-magnetic
etal o tai i g a ag eti eedle pi oted at the e t e. This o pass o sists of a D a k
at both ends to locate the N-S direction.

(b) The Circular Box Compass: - It carries a pivoted magnetic needle at the centre. The circular
box is fitted on a square base plate sometimes two bubble tubes are fixed at right angles to
each other on the base plate. The compass is meant for marking the north direction of the map.

5. U-fork or plumbing fork with plumb bob: - The U-fork is a metal strip bent in the shape of a
U hai pi ha i g e ual a le gths, the top a is poi ted a d the otto a a ied a
hook for suspending a plumb bob. This is meant for centering the table over a station.

Methods of Plane Table Surveying

Four classes of plane tabling surveys are recognized:

Radiation method, Intersection method, Traversing method, Resection method.

RADIATION METHOD

Here, the plane table is set up at one station which allows the other station to be accessed. The
points to be plotted are then located by radiating rays from the plane table station to the
points. After reducing the individual ground distances on the appropriate scale, the survey is
then plotted. This method is suitable for small area surveys. It is rarely used to survey a
complete project but is used in combination with other methods for filing in details within a
chain length. Plane Tabling using Radiation Method Under revision The following steps are
taken:

1. Select a point O such that all the points are visible

2. Set up and level the instrument at O

3. From O align the Alidade and draw radial lines towards. The stations A, B, C, D and E.
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4. Measure the distances OA, OB, OC, OD and OE: scale and draw Oa, Ob, Oc, Od and Oe on the
paper.

5. Join the point a, b, c, d, and e to give the outline of the survey. Under revision

INTERSECTION METHOD In this method, two instrument stations are used with the distance
between them called based line serving as the base to measure and plot the other locations:

1. 2 points A and B are selected from which the rest of the stations can be seen.

2. Set up and level the plane table at A and mark it as a in the paper to coincide with A on the
ground.

3. Sight B, C, D and E with the Alidade from a and draw rays which forwards them.

4. Measure AB, AC, AD and AE and using appropriate scale draw the corresponding paper
distance.

5. Remove the equipment from A to B and repeat the procedure using B as the measuring
station. Plane Tabling using Intersection Method Under revision TRAVERSING METHOD This is
similar to that of Compass Survey or Transit Traversing. It is used for running survey lines
between stations, which have been previously fixed by other methods of survey, to locate the
topographic details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers, etc. Plane Tabling using
Traversing Method .

RESECTION :- Resection is the process of determining the plotted position of the station
occupied by the plane table, by means of sights taken towards known points, locations of which
have been plotted. The method consists in drawing two rays to the two points of known
location on the plan after the table has been oriented. The rays drawn from the un-plotted
location of the station to the points of known location are called resectors, the intersection of
which gives the required location of the instrument stations. If the table is not correctly
oriented at the station to be located on the map, the intersection of the two resectors will not
give the correct location of the station.

The problem, therefore, lies in orienting table at the stations and can be solved by the following
four methods of orientation.

(i) Resection after orientation by compass.

(ii) Resection after orientation by back sighting.

(iii) Resection after orientation by three point problem.

(iv) Resection after orientation by two-point problem.

(i) Resection after orientation by compass :- The method is utilized only for small scale or rough
mapping for which the relatively large errors due to orienting with the compass needle would
not impair the usefulness of the map. The method is as follows
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. Let C e the i st u e t station to be located on the plan. Let A a d B e t o isi le

statio s hi h ha e ee plotted o the sheet as a a d . set the ta le at a d o ie t it
with compass. Clamp the table.

. Pi oti g the alidade a out a , d a a ese to a to a ds A ; si ila l , sight B f o

a d d a a ese to . The i te se tio of the t o ese to s ill gi e C , the e ui ed poi t. ii
Resection after orientation by back sighting :- If the table can be oriented by back sighting along
a previously plotted back sight line, the station can be located by the intersection of the back
sight line and the resector drawn through another known point. The method is as follows :
U de e isio . Let C e the statio to e lo ated o the pla a d A a d B e t o isi le
points which have been plotted o the sheet as a a d . “et the ta le at A a d o ie t it
a k sighti g B alo g a . . Pi oti g the alidade at a . sight C a d d a a a . Esti ate
oughl the positio of C o this a as C .

. “hift the ta le to C a d e t e it approximately with respect to C1. Keep the alidade on the
li e a a d o ie t the ta le a k sight to A , Cla p the ta le hi h has ee o ie ted.

. Pi oti g the alidade a out , sight B a d d a the ese to B to i te se t the a a i

C . Thus, C is the lo atio of the i st u e t statio . The Th ee-Point Problem : Statement :-
Location of the position, on the plan of the station occupied by the plane table by means of
observations to three well-defined points whose positions have been previously plotted on the
plan. Under revision the following are some of the important methods available for the solution
of the problem.

(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper Method)

Leh a s Method T ial a d E o Method

(C) Graphical Method

(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper method) The method involves the use of a tracing paper
and is, therefore also known as tracing paper method. Procedure : Let A, B, C be the known
poi ts a d a, , e thei plotted positio s. Let P e the positio of the i strument station to
be located on the map.

“et the ta le o P. O ie t the ta le app o i atel ith e e so that a is pa allel to AB.

Fi a t a i g pape o the sheet a d a k o it P as the app o i atel lo atio of P ith

the help of plumbing fork. Under revision

Pi oti g the alidade at P , sight A, B, C i tu a d d a the o espo di g li es P a , P

a d P o the t a i g pape . These li es ill ot pass th ough a, a d as the o ie tatio is
approximate.

(4) Loose the tracing pape a d otate it o the d a i g pape i su h a a that the li es p a ,
p a d p pass th ough a, a d espe ti el . T a sfe p o to the sheet a d ep ese t it as
p. Remove the tracing paper and join pa, pb and pc
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(5) Keep the alidade on pa. The li e of sight ill ot pass th ough A as the o ie tatio has ot
yet been corrected. To correct the orientation, loose the clamp and rotate the plane table so
that the li e of sight passes th ough A . Cla p the ta le. The ta le is thus o ie ted.

(6) To test the orientation keeps the alidade along pb. If the orientation is correct, the line of
sight ill pass th ough B. si ila l , the li e of sight ill pass th ough C he the alidade is
kept on pc.

Leh a s Method: - This is the easiest and quickest solution. The principles of the method
are as follows:

(a) When the board is properly oriented and the alidade sighted to each control signals A, B and
C, rays drawn from their respective signals will interest at a unique point.

(b) When rays are drawn from control signals, the angles of their intersections are true angles
whether or not the board is properly oriented.

Procedure:-

1. Set the table over new station p and approximately orient it.

2. With alidade on a sight A, similarly sight B and C. The three rays Aa, Bb and Cc will meet at a
point if the orientation is correct. Usually, however, they will not meet but will form a small
triangle known as the triangle of error.

3. To reduce the triangle of e o to ze o, a othe poi t p is hose as pe Leh a s ule.

4. Keep the alidade alo g p a a d otate the ta le to sight A. Cla p the ta le. This ill gi e e t
approximate orientation (but more accurate than the previous one). Under revision Then sight
B ith alidade at a d C ith alidade at . The a s ill agai fo a t ia gle of e o ut
much smaller.

5. The ethod has to e epeated till the t ia gle of e o edu es to ze o. Leh a s ‘ules :-
There are three rules to help in proper choice of the poi t p .

1. If the plane table is set up in the triangle formed by the three points (i.e. p lies within the
triangle ABC) then the position of the instrument on the plan will be inside the triangle of error,
if not it will be outside.

2. The poi t P should be so chosen that its distance from the rays Aa, Bb and Cc is proportional
to the distance of p from A, B and C respectively. Since the rotation of the table must have the
same effect on each ray.

3. The poi t p should e so hose that it lies either to the right of all three rays or to the left
of all three rays, since the table is rotated in one direction to locate P. Referring to the figure
below : By rule 1 p is outside the small triangle as p is outside the triangle ABC. By rule 2, using
the proportions for the perpendiculars given by scaling the distances PA, PB and PC, it must be
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in the left hand sector as shown. By rule 3, it cannot be in either of the sectors contained by the
rays PA, PB and PC. Under revision Indeterminate solution if point occupied at the circum circle
of the three control points :-

THANK YOU

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