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POWER SYSTEMS

1 BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS (PART-1)

1. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SYSTEM

The electric system network is categorized into 5 major categories-

(i) Generation of Electrical Energy
(ii) Transmission of Electrical Energy
(iii) Distribution of Electrical Energy
(iv) Controlling of Electrical Energy
(v) Utilization of Electrical Energy

1.1. Generation of Electrical Energy

Generation of electric energy is from
(a) conventional sources of energy such as coal based thermal plants, large hydroelectric
power plants.
(b) non-conventional sources of energy, thermal energy, etc.
1.2. Transmission of Electrical Energy
Generation of electrical energy is conventionally done remote areas so we need a
transmission network for effective transfer of energy.
1.3. Distribution of Electrical Energy
The transmitted electrical energy needs to be distributed across various loads at a given
location. Thus for a given so cation there is a requirement to set up distribution network.
1.4. Utilization of Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is to be utilized at user end which further requires to have a complex
network based on the load requirements.
1.5. Controlling of Electrical Energy
For maintaining the stability of vast electrical power system, a controlling network is
needed.

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2. BASIC DEFINITIONS

2.1. Instantaneous Voltage

It is the value of the sinusoidal (or periodic) voltage at any instant of the cycle. It is
generally abbreviated as ‘v(t)’.
2.2. Phase Value
The phase value of the voltage specifies the position of the wave with reference to a
reference wave. Generally the terms lagging and leading phase is used with reference to
voltage.
2.3. Average Voltage
T
1
The average value of the periodic function V(t) can be represented as
T  v(t) dt Here ‘T’
0

is the time period

For sinusoidal wave

1
V sin td d ( t )
 0 m
Vavg =

2Vm
Vavg = = 0.637 Vm

2.4. Root Mean Square Value
Since the effective value of sinusoidal wave is zero, the computation of the quantity
(voltage) is effectively represented by
T
1 2
Vrms =
T  v(t) dt
0

For sinusoidal wave

2
1 2
Vrms =
2  ( vm sin t ) d(t)
0

Vm
Vrms = = 0.707 Vm
2
Example 1.1.
If a voltage wave is represented by v = 10 sin (314t), then find the
(i) Peak voltage
(ii) R.M.S. voltage
(iii) Average voltage
Solution :
(i) Vm = 10 V
Vm 10
(ii) Vrms = = = 7.07 V
2 2
2Vm 2  10 20
(iii) Vavg = = = = 6.37 V
  

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3. PURE RESISTIVE LOAD CIRCUIT (R-LOAD)

For a purely resistive load, the current in the load is in phase with the load voltage

instantaneous value of current is i(t) = I mcos(ωt + ϕ) instantaneous value of voltage is VR(t) =

Vm cos(ωt + ϕ) phasor diagram.

3.1. Instantaneous power absorbed by resistor

pR(t) = iR(t) VR(t)

= [Im cos (ωt + ϕ)] [Vm cos (ωt + ϕ)]

pR(t) = Vm Im cos2(ωt + ϕ)

VmIm
= × 2cos2(ωt + ϕ)
2

VmIm
= [1 + cos (2ωt + 2ϕ)]
2

VmIm V I
= + m m cos (2ωt + 2ϕ)
2 2

The respective phasor diagram is

3.2. Average Power (for a complete cycle of voltage current waveform)

VmIm
PRavg = = VRMS. IRMS
2

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4. HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD (RL-LOAD)

For a inductive load, current in the load is lagging the load voltage
Instantaneous value of current is

   
iL(t) = Im cos  t +  –  
  2 

VL(t) = Vm cos (ωt + ϕ)

The respective phasor diagram(for highly inductive load)

Instantaneous power absorbed by inductor is

pL(t) = iL(t) VL(t)

   
= Im cos  t +  –    Vm cos ( t +  )
  2 

= VmIm sin (ωt + ϕ) cos (ωt + ϕ)

VmIm
pL(t) = × 2sin (ωt + ϕ) cos (ωt + ϕ)
2
V I 
pL(t) =  m m  sin (2ωt + 2ϕ)
 2 

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5. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN POWER SYSTEM

5.1. Definition
Power factor is the cosine of the angle between time varying voltage and time varying
current given that both quantities have the same operating frequency.
For a given set of voltage and current waveforms, power is expressed as
P
P= VI cos θ. Thus, I =
V cos 
In power system applications, supply voltage is kept constant, so current is inversely
proportional to power factor at a given load.
5.2. Disadvantages of Low power Factor
(a) Low power factor will result in higher current intake by the load, which eventually
leads to the requirement of larger current carrying cables switchgears and various other
equipment.
(b) High current intake gives rise to higher copper losses in the system; thus, efficiency
of system is reduced.
(c) The running cost and equipment cost of the system increases.
(d) High current produces higher voltage drop.
5.3. Advantages of High Power Factor
(a) High power factor results in higher active power (useful power) and lower reactive
power (necessary but wasted power).
(b) Energy loss of system is lower at high power factor.
5.4. Power Factor in Series RL circuit
The phasor diagram for series RL circuit is

Active Power P = VI cos θ

Reactive Power Q = VI sin θ

Apparent Power S = P2 + Q2 = VI

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5.5. Power Factor in Parallel RL circuit

 R  jL   R – jL 
Z=   
 R + jL   R – jL 
 RL 
Z=   (ωL + jR)
 R2 + 2L2 

R 
θ = tan–1  
L 

P = VI cos θ
Q = VI sin θ

S = P2 + Q2 = VI

6. COMPLEX POWER

If the voltage across any part of circuit is V = V e j

and the current through it is I = I e j

The product of voltage to the conjugate of current in polar form is called as complex power or
apparent power.
S = VI*

( V e )( I e )
*
j j
=

S = V I e j(–)

S = V I  – 

S = V I cos (  –  ) + V I sin (  –  )
activepower reactivepower

S=P+jQ

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Case (i): Voltage Phase Angle is more than current phase angle.
If α>β, current lags voltage. The circuit becomes inductive in nature.
Q = |V||I| sin (α–β) > 0
Thus, an inductor absorbs reactive power.
Case (ii): Voltage Phase Angle is less than current phase angle.
If α<β, current leads voltage. The circuit becomes capacitive in nature.
Q = |V||I| sin (α–β) < 0
Thus, a capacitor delivers reactive power.

7. COMPLEX POWER FLOW

Direction of P and Q flow where S = VI * = P + jQ

• If P > 0, circuit absorbs real power

• If P < 0, circuit supplies real power
• If Q > 0, circuit absorbs relative power (I lags V)
• If Q < 0, circuit supplies relative power (I lags V)
7.1. Physical Significance of Real and Reactive Power
Real Power (P) is the total energy absorbed by a load during a time period.
Reactive Power (Q) is the maximum value of instantaneous power absorbed by the
reactive component of the load.
7.2. Complex Power for Resistor
*
SR = VIR
*
V 
=  V     
R 

V2
SR =
R

V2
Thus, PR = ; QR = 0
R
A resistor absorbs real power.

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7.3. Complex Power for Inductor

*
 V 
SL = VIL* =  V    
 –jXL 

V2 V2
SL = = j
–jXL XL

V2
Thus, PL = 0; QL =
XL

An inductor absorbs reactive power.

7.4. Complex Power for capacitor

SC = VI*C

*
 V 
=  V    
 –jXC 

V2
SC = –j
XC

–V2
Thus, Pc = 0; Qc =
XC

A capacitor delivers reactive power.

8. COMPLEX POWER TRIANGLE

Complex Power is summarized graphically using power triangle.

Q = VI sin (α – β)

From the power triangle, results obtained are

S2 = P2 + Q2

Q
Power factor angle (α – β) = tan–1  
P

P P
Power Factor, p.f. = cos (α – β) = =
S P2 + Q2

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Example 1.2 A single-phase voltage source with V = 100 ∠130° volts delivers a current I =

10 ∠10° A, which leaves the positive terminal of the source. Calculate the source real and

reactive power, and state whether the source delivers or absorbs each of these.

Solution.

Since I leave the positive terminal of the source, the generator conventions are as- summed,

and the complex power delivered is

S = VI* = [100 ∠130°] [10 ∠10°]

S = 1000 ∠120° = – 500 + j866

P = Re[S] = –500 W

Q = Im[S] = +866 Var

9. BALANCED STAR CONNECTED LOADS

Circuit diagram of a three-phase Y-connected source feeding a balanced-Y load.

The balanced voltages at the three phases of source are
Ean = E∠0 or E ∠0°
2
Ebn = E  or E ∠120°
3
4
Ecn = E  or E ∠240°
3
The line to line voltages are
Eab = Ean – Ebn
= E∠0° – E∠120°

  –1 3 
= E 1 –  +j 
  2 2  
 

3 3
=E  +j 
2 2 


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 3 1
= 3E –j 
 2 2 


Eab = 3 E ∠150°

Similarly

Ebc = 3 E ∠270°

And Eca = 3 E ∠30°

Source Voltage Phasor Diagram

10. BALANCED DELTA CONNECTED LOADS

Applying KVL equation for each phase

Ean E0 E
Ia = = = –
ZY ZY  ZY

Ebn E120 E
Ib = = = 120 – 
ZY ZY  ZY

Ecn E240 E
Ic = = = 240 – 
ZY ZY  ZY

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Thus, line currents are also balanced Neutral current, In = I a + Ib + Ic

E
In = –  + 120 –  + 240 –  
ZY 
E
= [cos θ – j sin θ + cos (120° – θ) + j sin (120° – θ) + cos (240° – θ) +
ZY
j sin (240° – θ)]
In = 0
Hence, for balanced star connected load, current in the neutral wire is zero.
The phase currents when loads are connected in delta are
EAB 3  3E150 3E
IAB = 3 = = 150 – 
ZAB Z  Z
EBC 3  3E270 3E
IBC = 3 = = 270 – 
ZBC Z  Z
ECA 3  3E30 3E
ICA = 3 = = 30 – 
ZCA Z  Z
The line currents are obtained as
Ia = IAB – ICA
3E 3E
= 150 –  – 30 – 
Z Z
Ib = IBC – IAB
3E 3E
= 270 –  – 150 – 
Z Z
Ic = ICA – IBC
3E 3E
= = 30 –  – 270 – 
Z Z
Ia + Ib + Iac = 0
Thus, the neutral current is always zero irrespective of balance or unbalance
Also, Ia = 3 IAB ∠–30°
Ib = 3 IBC ∠–30°
Ic = 3 ICA ∠–30°
The phasor diagram for current in balanced delta connected load is

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Balanced star connected load and Delta connected load can be interchangeable using relation
Z
Zn =
3
Example 1.3 : A balanced, positive-sequence, Y-connected voltage source with Eab = 480 ∠0°
volts is applied to a balanced-Δ load with ZA = 30 ∠40°Ω. The line impedance between the
source and load is ZL = = 1 ∠85° Ω for each phase. Calculate the line currents, the Δ-load
currents, and the voltages at the load terminals.
Solution:
The solution is most easily obtained as follows. First, convert the Δ load to an equivalent Y.
Then connect the source and Y-load neutrals with a zero-ohm neutral wire. The connection of
the neutral wirer has no effect on the circuit, since the neutral current I n = 0 in a balanced
system. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 217. The currents are:
480
 – 30
Ean 3
IA = =
ZL + ZY 30
185 + 40
3
277.1 – 30
=
(0.0872 + j0.9962) + (7.660 + j6.428)
277.1– 30 277.1– 30
= =
(7.748 + j7.424) 10.73– 43.78
= 25.83∠–73.78°A
In = 25.83∠166.22°A
IC = 25.83∠46.22°A
The Δ-load currents are,
Ia
IAB =  + 30
3
25.83
= =  – 73.78 + 30
3
= 14.91 ∠–43.78° A
IBC = 14.91 ∠–163.78° A
ICA = 14.91∠+76.22° A

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The voltages at the load terminals are

EAB = ZΔIAB

= (30∠40°) (14.91∠43.78°)

= 4473 ∠–378°

EBC = 447.3 ∠–123.78°

ECA = 447.3 ∠116.22° V

11. COMPLEX POWER

Consider the voltage across any part of circuit be V =|V|e jα and the current through it is I

=|I|ejβ

The product of voltage to the conjugate of current in polar form is called as complex power or

apparent power.

S = VI*

( V e )( I e )
*
j j
=

S = V I e j(–)

S = V I  – 

S = V I cos (  –  ) + V I sin (  –  )
activepower reactivepower

S=P+jQ

Case (i): Voltage Phase Angle is more than current phase angle

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If α>β, it means current lags voltage. The circuit becomes inductive in nature.

Q = |V||I| sin (α–β) > 0

Thus an inductor absorbs reactive power.

Case (ii): Voltage Phase Angle is less than current phase angle

If α<β, current leads voltage. The circuit becomes capacitive in nature.

Q = |V||I| sin (α–β) < 0

Thus, a capacitor delivers reactive power.

Example 1.4:

Two ideal voltage sources designated as machines 1 and 2 are connect as shown in the figure.

If E1 = 100 ∠0° V, E2 = 100 ∠30° V and Z = 0 + j5 Ω, determine

(a) whether each machine is generating or consuming real power and the amount,

(b) whether each machine is receiving or supplying reactive power and the amount,

(c) the P and Q absorbed by the impedance.

Solution :

E1 – E2 100 + j0 – (86.6 + j50)

I= =
Z j5

13.4 – j50
= = –10 – 2j.68 = 10.35 ∠195°A
j5

The current entering box 1 is –1 and that entering box 2 is l so that

S1 = E1I* = P1 + jQ1 = 100(10 + j2.68) * = 1000 – j268 VA

S2 = E2I* = P2 + jQ2 = (86.6 + j50) (–10 + j268) = –1000 – j268 VA

The reactive power absorbed in the series impedance is

X = 10.352 × 5 = 536 VAR

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Machine 1 may be expected to be a generator because of the current direction and polarity

markings. However, since P1 is positive and Q1 is negative, the machine consumers energy at

the rate of 1000 W and supplies reactive power of 268 var. The machine is actually a motor.

Machine 2, expected to be a motor, has negative P2 and negative Q2. Therefore, this machine

generates energy at the rate of 1000 W and supplies reactive power of 268 var. the machine

is actually a generator.

Note that the supplied reactive power of 268 + 268 is equal to 536 var, which is required by

the inductive reactance of 5 Ω. Since the impedance is purely reactive, no P is consumed by

the impedance, and all the walls generated by machine 2 are transferred to machine 1.

12. POWER IN BALANCED THREE PHASE LOADS

For a 3-phase system, instantaneous voltage at ‘a’ phase is given as

Van(t) = 2 VAN cos (ωt + α)

And instantaneous current is

ia (t) = 2 Ia cos (ωt + β)

The instantaneous power for phase ‘a’ is given as pa(t) = Van(t) ia(t)
= 2 VAN Ia cos (ωt + α) cos (ωt + β)
pa(t) = VAN Ia cos (α – β) + VAN Ia cos (2ωt + α + β)
Similarly
pb(t) = VBN Ib cos (α – β) + VBN Ib cos (2ωt + α + β – 240°) and
pc(t) = VCN Ic cos (α – β) + VCN Ic cos (2ωt + α + β + 240°)
The total instantaneous power is
p3ϕ(t) = pa(t) + pb(t) + pc(t)
= 3VLN IL cos (α – β) +
VLN IL {cos (2ωt + α + β) + cos (2ωt + α + β – 240°) + cos (2ωt + α + β + 240°}
Since the three cosine terms are balanced set of three phasors, there sum will be zero.
Then,
p3ϕ(t) = 3VLN IL cos (α – β)
VLL
∵ VLN =
3

p3ϕ(t) = 3 VLL IL cos (α – β)

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