Training Services

Compressors

PDO-2004/Comp 09-1
 Compressors – from a Process
Engineering Perspective

As a Process Engineer, why do I care about compressors?

Primarily – Flow and Head

Secondarily, reliability and efficiency

PDO-2004/Comp 09-2
Compressors

Reciprocating

Centrifugal

Axial

Screw

PDO-2004/Comp 09-3
 Types of Compressors
Compressors

Dynamic Positive Displacement

Radial Flow Axial Flow Rotary Reciprocating

(Centrifugal)

Single Rotor Two Rotor

Sliding Vane Liquid Ring Roots Screw

CD-R00-02
PDO-2004/Comp 09-4
Approximate Ranges of Application
for Reciprocating, Centrifugal
and Axial-Flow Compressors
105

104
Discharge Pressure, psia

103 Axial
Flow
Centrifugal
102

10
Reciprocating

10 102 103 104 105 106

Inlet flow, ACFM CD-R00-01
PDO-2004/Comp 09-5
 Compressor Performance
Characteristics
Head

Axial
Centrifugal
Reciprocating

Flow CD-R00-03
PDO-2004/Comp 09-6
 Approximate Polytropic Efficiencies
for Centrifugal and Axial-Flow Compressors
.90
Axial-Flow
Polytropic Efficiency, EP

Compressors

.80
Centrifugal
Compressors

.70
100 1000 10000 100000

Suction Volume ACFM CD-R00-06

PDO-2004/Comp 09-7
Reciprocating Compressor Efficiency

100

90

80

70

1 2 3 4 5 6
Compression Ratio
CD-R00-05
PDO-2004/Comp 09-8
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
Axial

PDO-2004/Comp 09-9
Reciprocating Compressors

Basic Theory

Calculations

Hardware

Advantages/Disadvantages

Case studies

PDO-2004/Comp 09-10
 Compression

Receiver
Pressure
P2 2
Clearance
Volume Inlet
Pressure
P1 1

0
Stroke

Discharge

Inlet

CD-R00-07
PDO-2004/Comp 09-11
 Discharge
Receiver
Pressure
P2 3 2
Clearance
Volume Inlet
Pressure
P1 1

0
Stroke

Discharge

Inlet

CD-R00-08
PDO-2004/Comp 09-12
 Expansion
Receiver
Pressure
P2 3 2
Clearance
Volume Inlet
Pressure
P1 1
4
0
Stroke

Discharge

Inlet

PDO-2004/Comp 09-13
CD-R00-09
 Intake
Receiver
Pressure
P2 3 2
Clearance
Volume Inlet
Pressure
P1 1
4
0
Stroke

Discharge

Inlet

PDO-2004/Comp 09-14
CD-R00-10
 Reciprocating Compressor
Volumetric Efficiency

Actual Capacity
Vol. Eff. =
Piston Displacement

 1k 
V .E.(%) = 100 −  r − 1C − L
 
where: r = Compression ratio
k = Cp/Cv
c = Clearance in cylinder, %
L = Practical correction for particular
application (typically 37 pct)
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lb·°°F
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume, Btu/lb·°°F
PDO-2004/Comp 09-15
 Reciprocating Compressor
Discharge Temperature

 k −1 
 
TD = TS  D  k 
P
 PS 

Where: TD = Discharge temperature, °R

TS = Suction temperature, °R
PD = Discharge pressure, psia
PS = Suction pressure, psia
k = Cp/Cv

PDO-2004/Comp 09-16
 Reciprocating Compressor
Horsepower Calculation

 k −1 
 ZRT  k   PD  k 
BHP =   
  
 − 1
 33000mN  k − 1   PS 
 
 

Industry has developed graphical solution that

accounts for various inefficiencies. Calculational
worksheet summarizes the calculations.

PDO-2004/Comp 09-17
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR - BHP
Symbol
Qb Million SCFD
Ts ºR
Ps psia
Pd psia
r Pd/Ps
k Cp/Cv
mol wt Molecular Weight
sp gr Specific Gravity
Zs
Zd
Zavg
ft3/min @ Suction
Qs (std ft 3 d )(14.7)(Ts )(Zs )
(1440)(Ps )(520)
k −1
k
 k −1 
 
Td
(Ts )r  k 
BHP/mm @ 14.4 psia
(A)
and Suction Temperature
(B) sp gr Correction

(C)
(Q b )(1.02)(Ts )
520
(D) Add 5 pct if non-lube
(E) Zavg
Gear Loss 3 pct
(F) (if Gear is used)
BHP Req’d (A + B)(C)(D)(E)(F) PDO-2004/Comp 09-18
Two Stage Compression
120
6
7
Second Stage Referred
100 to First Stage

80 Volume Reduction due

to Cooling between Stages

60
5 2
40 3

20 4 1

0
Volume
CD-R00-11
PDO-2004/Comp 09-19
Reciprocating Compressor Control

Suction Valve Unloaders

Cylinder Pockets

Bypass

PDO-2004/Comp 09-20
Reciprocating Compressor Advantages

High Compression Ratios

Constant Volume/Wide Pressure Range

Molecular Weight Flexibility

Fairly Basic Evolved Technology

Efficiency

PDO-2004/Comp 09-21
Reciprocating Compressor
Disadvantages

Foundation and Piping Requirements

Pulsating Flow

Vulnerable to Dirt and Liquid

Maintenance

Plot Area

Large Volumes Constraints

Lubrication Contaminating Process

Torsional Implications

PDO-2004/Comp 09-22
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
Axial

PDO-2004/Comp 09-23
 Recycle Gas Compressor
5 Stage Centrifugal Compressor

PDO-2004/Comp 09-24
 Centrifugal Compressor
Power Calculation

Gas HP =
(wt. flow )(head )
(33000)(Eh )
where: wt. Flow = lb/min
Head, ft = (Zave)(R)(TS)(Beta)
and: Zave = Ave compressibility factor
1545
R = Gas constant,
mol wt
TS = Suction temp., °R
rM − 1
Beta =
M
PDO-2004/Comp 09-25
 Centrifugal Compressor
Power Calculation
(continued)

Discharge Pressure, psia

where: r =
Suction Pressure psia
k −1
M =
(k )(Eh )
where: k = Cp/CV
Eh = Polytropic efficiency
(from Figure 6 attached)

PDO-2004/Comp 09-26
 Centrifugal Compressor
Discharge Temperature

TD = TS (r )M

where: TD = Discharge temperature, °R

TS = Suction temperature, °R
r = PD/PS
k −1
M =
(k )(Eh )

PDO-2004/Comp 09-27
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR - BHP
Symbol
Qb Million SCFD
Ts ºR
Ps psia
Pd psia
r Pd/Ps
mol wt Molecular Weight
1545
R
mol wt
k Cp/Cv
Qs ft3/min @ Suction
wt flow, lb/min (Q b )(mol wt )
546000
Zs
Zd
Zavg
Eh Polytropic Efficiency
k −1
k
k −1
M
k Eh
(r )M − 1
Beta (r )M − 1
M
Head (Zavg )(R )(Ts )(Beta )
Gas hp (Wt Flow )(Head )
(33000)(E h )
Losses Frictional Seal 1 pct of Gas hp

Gear (If Used) 3 pct of hp

Total bhp
Td (Ts )(r )M
PDO-2004/Comp 09-28
 Compressor Polytropic Efficiency
95

90
Axial

85
Centrifugal

80

75

70

65
100 1000 10000 100000 500000

Actual Inlet Volume Flow (ACFM) EDS-R01-0523

PDO-2004/Comp 09-29
Centrifugal Compressor Control

Variable Speed

Suction Throttle Valve

PDO-2004/Comp 09-30
 Centrifugal Compressor Typical
Variable Speed Performance Curves
130
120 105% RPM
110
Percent Pressure Rise

100% RPM
100
90
80
70
60
50
70% RPM
40
30
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Percent Inlet Volume
CD-R00-12
PDO-2004/Comp 09-31
 Centrifugal Compressor Typical
Constant Speed Performance Curve
120
110
Percent Pressure Rise

100
90
Surge Line
80
70
Plant ∆ P
60
50
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Inlet Volume
CD-R00-13
PDO-2004/Comp 09-32
 Centrifugal Compressor Typical
Constant Speed Performance Curve
120
110
Percent Pressure Rise

100 Disch
90 Valve
∆P
Surge Line
80
70
Plant ∆ P
60
50
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Inlet Volume
CD-R00-14
PDO-2004/Comp 09-33
 Centrifugal Compressor Typical
Constant Speed Performance Curve
120
Compressor head (m or ft)

Suction
110 Valve
100 ∆P
90 Disch
Surge Line Valve
80 ∆P
70
Plant ∆ P
60
50
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Inlet Volume
CD-R00-15
PDO-2004/Comp 09-34
Compressor Lube and Seal Oil System

PDO-2004/Comp 09-35
 Control System

Provides three main functions

– Filtration of buffer gas
– Regulation of buffer gas
– Monitoring of seal performance

Offers local indication of filter and seal performance

Design is simple to operate and user friendly with
minimum maintenance requirements

PDO-2004/Comp 09-36
 To Flare To Flare
Dry Gas Seal
Typical Control
System Flow
Meter
Adjust
Flow
Control

2
micron Flow
To Control P air filter Meter To Control
Room Room
To Control To Control
Room & gage Room &
Local Alarm PI Local Alarm
clock
Solenoid
SUCT DISC Valve
Pressure
(N.C.) Switch

Radial Radial
Bearing Bearing

John Crane
PDO-2004/Comp 09-37
Gas Seal CD-R00-23
Comparison of Wet Seal vs. Dry Gas Seal
Wet Oil Seals Dry Gas Seal
Seal oil support Pumps, reservoirs, filters None
systems costs traps, coolers, consoles
Seal oil consumption 1-100 gallons/day No seal oil
Maintenance cost A major expenditure over Negligible
equipment life
Energy costs Seal Power loss: 10-30 HP 1-2 HP
Unit driven pumps: 20-100 HP
Process gas leakage Gas Leakage: 25 scfm & higher Less than 2 scfm
Oil contamination Of Pipelines: High clean up costs None
Of Process: Catalyst poisoning
Toxic and corrosion Buffer gas consumption (egN2) 2-4 scfm
applications 40-70 scfm
Unscheduled High Downtimes Very reliable
shutdowns
Aborted startups Frequent Rare
PDO-2004/Comp 09-38
Centrifugal Compressor Advantages

High reliability–Low maintenance

Large volumes capacity

Tolerance of liquids and dirt

Smooth flow

Wide capacity range and ease of control

No process gas contamination problems

Compatibility with driver

PDO-2004/Comp 09-39
Centrifugal Compressor Disadvantages

Defined molecular weight

Small machines inefficient

Limited to approximately 400-600 ACFM volume

Surge potential

Low mole weight compression ratio capability

More sophisticated technology

PDO-2004/Comp 09-40
Reciprocating
Centrifugal
Axial

PDO-2004/Comp 09-41
Axial Flow Compressors
(Dynamic Type)

PDO-2004/Comp 09-42
Axial Compressor Control

Variable Speed

Variable Stators

Bypass (snort for air blower)

PDO-2004/Comp 09-43
 Axial Compressor
Variable Speed Performance

PDO-2004/Comp 09-44
CD-R00-16
 Axial Compressor
Variable Stator Performance

PDO-2004/Comp 09-45
CD-R00-17
 Axial Compressor Advantages

High Efficiency

Smaller Relative Casing Size (Lower Cost)

Low Maintenance - High Reliability

Speed Match With Power Recovery Turbine

Constant Volume for Wide Pressure Range

Compatibility With Driver

Smooth Flow

PDO-2004/Comp 09-46
Axial Compressor Disadvantages

Decay of Performance With Blade Fouling

Sensitivity to Surging

Sophisticated Technology

Costs

Limited Experience With Hydrocarbons

PDO-2004/Comp 09-47
 A Model of Surge

Surge Definition
Surge is self-oscillations of pressure and flow, including a
flow reversal. The surge flow reversal is the only point of
the curve when pressure and flow drop simultaneously.
Discharge
Pressure
Surge Region Operating Region
C A
B

E
D

Volume Flow Rate

Characteristic Curve of a Typical Centrifugal Compressor

– B to C in 20 to 50 mSec
– Cycle B to B at 0.33 to 3 Hertz
CD-R00-29
PDO-2004/Comp 09-48
 The Surge Phenomena

Rapid flow oscillations

Thrust reversals

Potential damage

Rapid pressure oscillations

with process instability

Rising temperatures inside

compressor
Sec.
1 2 3
Time

PDO-2004/Comp 09-49
CD-R00-30
 Surge Description

Flow reverses in 20 to 50 milliseconds

Surge cycles at a rate of 1/3 to 3 hertz

Compressor vibrates

Temperature rises

“Whooshing” noise

Trips may occur

Conventional instruments and human
operators may fail to recognize surge

PDO-2004/Comp 09-50
 Some Surge Consequences

Unstable flow and pressure

Damage in sequence with increasing severity
to seals, bearings, impellers, shaft

Increased seal clearances and leakage

Lower energy efficiency

Reduced compressor life

PDO-2004/Comp 09-51
Platforming Recycle Gas Circuit

Net Gas S
e
Products p
Condenser a
Charge r
Heater a
t
o
r

C T
F
E

FR

FF
CD-R00-31
PDO-2004/Comp 09-52
 FCC Main Air Blower

PDRC
To Stack
F
r
a
Regenerator c
t
FRC i
Rx
o
T n
a
t
o
r

Feed

CD-R00-32
PDO-2004/Comp 09-53
 Antisurge Controller Operation

Surge Limit Line (SLL)

Surge Control Line (SCL)
∆Pc

Surge Control Equation:

Operating K∆ Pc + b1 = ∆Po minimum
Point

b ∆Po
1

CD-R00-33
PDO-2004/Comp 09-54
 Antisurge Controller Recycle Trip
Circuit Operation

Surge Limit Line (SLL)

Recycle Trip Line (RTL)
∆Pc
Surge Control Line (SCL)

Activates open loop

control

Prevents surge in all
but the most severe
disturbance

RT ∆Po
b
1
PDO-2004/Comp 09-55
 FCC Axial Main Air Blower
with CCC Performance Controller

UA XA FR

CCC Performance Controller

CCC Antisurge Controller XIC
(process inputs are not shown) (DCS Faceplate only) FIC

PI TI
^

HIC HY

P
I
FC
HIC HY

(Signal to DFAH
ZI
I
P
Shutdown)
FT PT TE

ZT
Actuator

PDO-2004/Comp 09-56
CD-R00-34
 Screw Compressors

No spare – 99% on stream reliability

vs. Centrifugal – can be more expensive, noisy,

less efficient

vs. Recip – no spare, usually less expensive

compared to two recips, less efficient, less
maintenance

PDO-2004/Comp 09-57
 Screw Compressors

Oil Flooded
Dry Screw

– 6000 acfm – 30,000 acfm
– 250 psi differential – 250 psi differential
pressure pressure
– 350 psi discharge pressure – 200 discharge pressure
– Slide valve control (over 20,000 acfm)
– Oil carryover – 500 discharge pressure
(under 10,000 acfm)
– No timing gear
– Noisy
– Lower cost than dry screw
– PSA units

PDO-2004/Comp 09-58
Principle of Compression

Oil Flooded Screw

PDO-2004/Comp 09-59
 Screw Compressor Comparison

DRY SCREW RECIPROCATING

Tolerance for dust or particulate Good Poor
Tolerance for liquids Excellent Poor
Tolerance for MW variations Excellent Excellent
Reliability Excellent (99.5%) Fair (93%)
Plot space Good Poor
Operating efficiency Poor Excellent
Capacity regulation Poor (for single speed) Fair
Gas pulsation Good Poor
Gas polymerization Excellent Poor

PDO-2004/Comp 09-60
 Screw Compressor Comparison

DRY SCREW CENTRIFUGAL

Tolerance for dust or particulate Good Good
Tolerance for liquids Excellent Good
Tolerance for MW variations Excellent Poor
Surge No Yes
Reliability Excellent (99.5%) Excellent (99.5%)
Plot space Good Good
Operating efficiency Poor Good
Capacity regulation Poor (for single speed) Good
Gas pulsation Good Excellent
Gas polymerization Excellent Poor

PDO-2004/Comp 09-61
Reliability and Maintenance

Reliable Reciprocating Compressor Design

Limit Piston Speed

Limit Piston RPM

Limit Cylinder Size

*Limit Discharge Temp (250°F)

Lubricate Cylinders

Coat Piston Rod

Vibration and Temperature Monitor

PDO-2004/Comp 09-62
 Reliability and Maintenance

Reliable Centrifugal Compressor Design

Limit Maximum Impeller Yield Strength

Dry Gas Seals

*Report all Operating Cases

Voting Type Shutdown

Anti-surge controls (where required)

PDO-2004/Comp 09-63