Sociology

Research
Methodology

RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL

NETWORK ANALYSIS
Linton C. Freeman, Douglas R. White, and A. Kimball Romney,
editors
Since the publication of Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Sociology in 1875, the use
of social structure as a defining concept has produced a large body of creative
speculations, insights, and intuitions about social life. However, writers in this
tradition do not always provide the sorts of formal definitions and propositions that
are the building blocks of modern social research. In its broad-ranging examination
of the kind of data that form the basis for the systematic study of social structure,
Research Methods in Social Network Analysis marks a significant methodological
advance in network studies.
As used in this volume, social structure refers to a bundle of intuitive natural
language ideas and concepts about patterning in social relationships among people.
In contrast, social networks is used to refer to a collection of precise analytic and
methodological concepts and procedures that facilitate the collection of data and
the systematic study of such patterning. Accordingly, the book’s five sections are
arranged to address analytical problems in a series of logically ordered stages or
processes.
The major contributors define the fundamental modes by which social structural
phenomena are to be represented; how boundaries to a social structure are set;
how the relations of a network are measured in terms of structure and content; the
ways in which the relational structure of a network affects system actors; and how
actors within a social network are clustered into cliques or groups. The chapters in
the last section build on solutions to problems proposed in the previous sections.
This highly unified approach to research design combined with a representative
diversity of viewpoints makes Research Methods in Social Network Analysis a
state-of-the-art volume.

Linton C. Freeman, Douglas R. White and A. Kimball Romney are professors in the Pro-
gram in Social Network Analysis at the University of California, Irvine.

“A landmark book, the best of network analysis to date is sampled here.”

— Alvin Wolfe, American Anthropologist

Cover design by Valerie V. Mergentime

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Research
Methods in
Social Network
Analysis
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Research
Methods in
Social Network
Analysis
Edited by
Linton C. Freeman
Douglas R. White
A. Kimball Romney

I~ ~~O~~~;~~;UP
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Originally published in 1989 by George Mason University Press.

Published 1992 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

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Copyright © 1992 by Taylor & Francis.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
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Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 91-23740

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Research methods in social network analysis/Linton C. Freeman,

Douglas R. White, A. Kimball Romney, [editors].
p. cm.
Based on a conference held in Laguna Beach, Calif., 1980. Spon-
sored by the University of California, Irvine, Research Program
in Social Network Analysis.
Reprint. Originally published: Fairfax, Va.: George Mason Univer-
sity, C1989.
ISBN: 1-56000-569-6 (pbk.)
1. Social networks-Methodology-Congresses. 2. Social sci-
ences-Network analysis-Congresses. I. Freeman, Linton C.
II. White, Douglas R. III. Romney, A. Kimball (Antone Kimball)
IV. University of California, Irvine. Research Program in Social
Network Analysis.

[HM131.R465 1991]
300-dc20 91-23740
CIP
ISBN 13: 978-1-56000-569-8 (pbk)
 T ABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................... .1

I. Network Representations
Chapter 1. Social Networks and the Structure Experiment
Linton C. Freeman ...........................................................11

Chapter 2. A Fonnal Unification of Anthropological Kinship and Social

Network Methods
Brian L. Foster and Steven B. Seidman ............................. .41

II. Network Boundaries

Chapter 3. The Boundary Specification Problem in Network Analysis
Edward O. Laumann, Peter V. Marsden,
and David Prensky ...........................................................61

III. The Structure of Relations

Chapter 4. Inferring Meaningful Global Network Properties from
Individual Actor's Measurement Scales
William H. Batchelder .... ..................................................89

Chapter 5. Stochastic Modeling and the Analysis of Structural Data

David Strauss and Linton C. Freeman .............................. 135

Chapter 6. Relational Contents in Multiple Network Systems

Ronald S. Burt and Thomas Scht/Jtt .................................. .185

Chapter 7. Social Semigroups and Green Relations

John P. Boyd .................................................................215
IV. Implications of Relational Structure
Chapter 8. What Is a Homomorphism?
Phillip Bonacich ............................................................ 255

Chapter 9. Models of Network Effects on Social Actors

Patrick D. Doreian ........................................................ 295

V• Clustering and Positioning of Actors

Chapter 10. Algorithms and Network Analysis: A Test of Some Analytical
Procedures on Kapferer's Tailor Shop Material
J. Clyde Mitchell ........................................................... 319

Chapter 11. Conceptions of Overlap in Social Structure

Phipps Arabie and J. Douglas Carroll .............................. 367

Chapter 12. Empirical Blocking Methods

Gregory H. Heil ............................................................ 393

Chapter 13. Rethinking the Role Concept: Homomorphisms on

Social Networks
Karl P. Reitz and Douglas R. White ................................ .429
Chapter 14. Methods for the Characterization of Role Structures in
Network Analysis
Peter v. Marsden .......................................................... .489
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Participants in the Laguna Beach Conference
Spring, 1980

Phipps Arabie Linton C. Freeman

Department of Psychology School of Social Sciences
University of Illinois University of California, Irvine
William H. Batchelder Gregory Heil
School of Social Sciences Delta Graphics
University of California, Irvine Bolt, Beranek, and Newman
Steven Berkowitz E. O. Laumann
Department of Sociology Department of Sociology
University of Vennont University of Chicago
Phillip Bonacich Peter Marsden
Department of Sociology Department of Sociology
University of California, Los Angeles Harvard University
Scott A. Boonnan J. Clyde Mitchell
Department of Sociology Nuffield College
Yale University Oxford University
John P. Boyd Ronald Rice
School of Social Sciences Annenburg School
University of California, Irvine University of Southern California
Ronald S. Burt William Richards
Department of Sociology Department of Communications
Columbia University Simon Fraser University

Patrick D. Doreian A. Kimball Romney

Department of Sociology School of Social Sciences
University of Pittsburgh University of California, Irvine
Brian L. Foster Stephen Seidman
Department of Anthropology Department of Computer Science
Arizona State University George Mason University
John A. Sonquist
Department of Sociology
University of California, Santa Barbara

David Strauss
Department of Statistics
University of California, Riverside
Douglas R. White
School of Social Sciences
University of California, Irvine
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 INTRODUCTION

This volume grew out of a conference on methods of research in social

networks. The conference was sponsored by the University of California,
Irvine, Research Program in Social Network Analysis. It was held in Laguna
Beach, California, in the spring of 1980.
Many of the scholars who were active in social networks research
attended the Laguna Beach conference. They are listed on pages viii and ix.
Participants were broadly representative of a range of perspectives in
networks research. No attempt was made to load the roster with proponents
of one or any small set of viewpoints. Obviously, there is a bias towards
participation by those working or-at that time-visiting on the West Coast.
This bias was based on economic considerations; the budget was limited. But
in any case, care was taken to assure a sampling of divergent views on current
problems in network study.
Participants were asked to prepare drafts of papers on topics of
general methodological interest to those working in the area of social
networks research. The group met and explored alternative conceptions of
key problems in this area of research. Finally, after two days of discussion,
the broad outline for this volume emerged. It was conceived as a state of the
art statement of research problems and methods from the varying
perspectives of those assembled.
Individuals and pairs working in collaboration staked out areas for
exploration and report. Drafts of chapters and revisions were prepared.
Finally, the three editors undertook the task of tying it all together into what
we hope is a reasonably coherent volume.
Although no one planned it that way in advance, this book has five
sections. They arise from the major types of problems addressed in the book
2 Introduction

which can logically be ordered as stages or processes in social structural or

network analysis.
I. Network Representations. What are the fundamental modes by
which social structural phenomena are to be represented? What is the nature
of the units of social structure? What are the basic types of relations between
them? What are the processes that affect these units and their relations over
time? The choice of a mode of representation thus implies a phenomeno-
logical orientation, as well as a methodological strategy. The latter includes
choice of representational models, measurement axioms, and the like.
II. Network Boundaries. How do we set the limits to a network or
social structural problem, and how does the choice of boundaries limit the
suitability of various models or methods? The problem might also include
the question of the boundaries of the elementary units related in the network.
III. The Structure of Relations. How are the relations of a network
defined and measured? What is their structure and content? These are
central foundational problems distinctive to the networks approach. How is
the type of measure~ent related to the detection of structure? What are the
appropriate probabilistic or deterministic models for structural analysis?
IV. Implications oj Relational Structure. A central feature of network
analysis is the ability to represent the ways in which the relational structure
of a network impacts on system actors. This may include impact on the
environment of the actors, the positions of the actors, or the actors
themselves (i.e., on their attributes or relations).
V. Clustering and Positioning oj Actors. How are actors clustered in a
social network into groups or cliques? Such clusters are formed on the basis
of social relations within the group in contrast to those outside. How does
this clustering idea differ from the idea of positions or roles in the social
structure, based on patterns of relations with occupants of other roles? What
are the preconditions and consequences of actors' occupancies of groups or
cliques as opposed to roles?

I. Network Representations

Network representations utilize elements and their relations. The

elements are not all necessarily of the same type: they may be individuals,
sets of individuals, groups, organizations, activities, or some combination
thereof. The relations are not all necessarily of the same type: they may be
reflexive (one element relations), dyadic (two element relations), or polyadic
 Social Network Analysis 3

(multi-element relations) for elements of a single type. Relations among two

or more different types of elements may also be examined. There are many
different types of network representations in common use. In all of its
varieties, the network approach is quite general. There are, however,
common features and issues which run through these varieties.
Types of empirical, graphic, or mathematical representations of
networks are often interchangeable. For example, isomorphic mappings can
be defmed among (1) concrete actors and their social relations, (2) points and
edges in one or more graphs of the network, (3) matrices in which rows or
columns are related by cell entries, and (4) various abstract algebraic
structures.
Chapter 1 sets the groundwork for network analysis of systems of
dyadic relations. Freeman reviews the intuitive antecedents for network
study and systematically builds a formal representation for the study of social
structure, including temporal processes. Isomorphisms between graph,
matrix, and algebraic representations are explored as they relate to the
phenomenology of systems of elements and dyadic relations. He defines this
field as currently conceived and sets the range of tasks for developing a
coherent perspective.
Chapter 2 presents a broad overview of a general structuralist
perspective for the study of social networks, incorporating polyadic as well
as dyadic relations. Foster and Seidman discuss polyadic relations as
different types of subgraphs defined on subsets of actors or elements.
Drawing on their own rich lines of anthropological and mathematical
research, they go beyond problems of representation to present a unified set
of concepts and tools for structural analysis. Their vocabulary is strongly
graph-theoretic, but they also show some of the isomorphisms between the
graph and algebraic representations.
The differences in the phenomenology and methods of Chapters 1 and
2 may be of considerable interest to those who adopt a structuralist
perspective. Consider, for example, shared fields of interaction between
multiple actors, such as co-participation in specified social contexts, groups,
or roles. In the framework of Chapter 1, group memberships might, for
example, be represented as attributes of actors. From the somewhat different
perspective of Chapter 2, groups might be viewed as a second kind of node
which interconnect subsets of actors, which might imply a phenomenological
difference between group memberships and other attributes (e.g., age, sex)
which merely categorize (but do not necessarily interconnect) subsets of
actors. The frameworks of representation here are, in one sense,
interchangeable, but one frame of reference might be more natural and more
4 Introduction

productive to work with substantively or analytically. Often, new and

productive approaches are preceded by such shifts of perspective. In this
case, Foster and Seidman are attempting to capture the richness of
anthropological concepts of social structure. Out of their perspective has
grown a number of new and fruitful mathematical concepts and procedures
for structural analysis.

II. Network Boundaries

Chapter 3 examines problems of specifying units of analysis in the

study of social networks. In particular, Laumann, Marsden, and Prensky fix
our attention on questions concerning specifying boundaries of human
collectivities. This is not a new problem in sociology, but it gains fresh
insights when viewed from a structural perspective. They also lead us to
consider problems of the suitability of various classes of structural models in
the context of varying kinds of group boundary specifications.

III. The Structure of Relations

In Chapter 4, Batchelder explores some of the ramifications of

measurement theory for the study of social relations and networks. The
theory of measurement has developed for the most part in mathematical
psychology. But it turns out to have considerable power when it is focused
on networks problems. The most striking results, perhaps, are those that
bear on the appropriateness of various classes of structural models in the
context of varying measurement axioms.
Statements about network structure require invariance across
transformations of the measurements which are compatible with the
measurement scales. Batchelder's major contribution is to show the
implications of different measurement scales for such invariant statements
about transitivity, reciprocity, and cliqueing.
Chapter 5 by Strauss and Freeman gives a broad perspective derived
from probability theory on the structure of relations in a network. Their
treatment organizes and gives coherence to a wide range of older specific
network models in the light of modern stochastic theory. Finally, they wind
up with an examination of a set of quite general and powerful contemporary
perspectives all derived from log-linear analysis.
 Social Network Analysis 5

In Chapter 6, Burt and Sch(l.itt develop a model designed to begin to

come to terms with a very difficult problem: the content of social relations.
Most network researchers seek to uncover clusters of actors. They stress
structural patterns and seemingly avoid any discussion of relational content at
all. In this chapter an elaborate device for exploring clustering among
relations is introduced.
Chapter 7 by Boyd provides empirical and algebraic methods for
analysis of the structure of relations. Here the set of primary relations is
expanded to include the semigroup of all compound relations. Results from
the theory of semi groups are used to contribute to our understanding of
network structures. Boyd solves the difficult problem of how to construct
meaningful semigroups from empirical network data. He also shows how the
semigroup can be homomorphic ally decomposed to show subsystems of
relations in equilibrium.
Boyd, like Batchelder in Chapter 6, examines the problem of level of
measurement of social relations. Here, however, he asks how different kinds
of measurement-Boolean versus real valued relations-and different kinds
of composition of relations, as in Boolean versus ordinary matrix products,
affect the detection of different kinds of structural properties in semigroups
of relations. He decides in favor of real valued measures and operations in
order to reveal the kinds of equilibrium subsystems in which he is interested.
There is also a close connection between Chapters 6 and 7. Burt uses
correlations between different primary relations to analyze questions of
content. Boyd uses correlations between primary and compound relations in
a semi group to analyze questions of relational structure.

IV. Implications of Relational Structures

In Chapter 8, Bonacich questions how homomorphisms of a network

semigroup-preserving properties of the structure of relations-can be
interpreted in terms of graph homomorphisms which either collapse sets of
relations or sets of actors in the orginal network. Four approaches are
suggested, none of which provides a complete solution to the question. The
approaches are shown to be appropriate to different kinds of structural
representations, and each applies under different conditions. Many of these
problems of the relation between semi group and graph homomorphisms
have not yet been solved mathematically.
6 Introduction

Boyd, in the previous Chapter, also discusses how the structure of

relations in a semi group has important consequences for the types of
positions occupied by actors.
Doreian's Chapter 9 uses the recently developed method of network
autocorrelation to solve problems of estimating how the attributes of system
actors may be affected not only by their other attributes (as in regression
models), but by the attributes oLother actors with whom they interact in a
network.
Foster and Seidman, in Chapter 2, are also concerned with the question
of how relational structures constrain or facilitate decisions taken by system
actors. In their approach, however, they are able to define a great variety of
intra-unit (Le., subgraph level) and inter-unit relational structures.

v. Clustering and Position of Actors

The cliquing and clustering of subgroups of actors has a long history in

social network analysis. Only in the last decade or so has the more general
problem of the equivalence of positions of actors been addressed. Thus, in
order of generality, we now have three concepts of positioning: (1) cluster
equivalent sets of actors are those who have more relations within the cluster
than with sets of actors in other clusters; (2) structurally equivalent sets of
actors are those who have the same (or similar) relations with other actors,
regardless of how they are internally related; (3) regularly equivalent sets of
actors are those who have the same (or similar) relations with one or more
equivalent actors.
A sociological clique is a kind of cluster where relations are within the
cluster are dense. Cliques represent a special case of structural equivalence.
Cliquing however, is a "group" concept based on internal connectedness,
while structural equivalence is partly a "role" concept based on general
patterns of external connectedness. Regular equivalence, on the other hand,
is more purely a role concept. Regular equivalence implies nothing about
closeness of connections among actors, while connecting paths between
structurally equivalent actors are always of length no greater than two.
There is a fourth approach to the positioning of actors, where
relationally equivalent sets of actors are those who have similar patterns of
internal and external relations, without regard to whom the external relations
are with. This represents a "local" rather than a "global" approach of regular
 Social Network Analysis 7

equivalence to social roles. The chapters in this section deal with all four
concepts of position.
Before discussing the chapters in this section, we might note that
Foster and Seidman, in Chapter 2, provide a generalization of the ordinary
concept of cliques and maximally complete subgraphs. They also provide a
general discussion of the concept of position in a network, in graph-theoretic
terms. A subgraph has an intrinsic structural feature as a function of its self-
contained relations. It has a positional characteristic as a function both of
internal relations and those with outside elements. A clique or cluster is thus
defined positionally. Structural equivalence and regular equivalence, as role
concepts, are also defmed positionally.
In Chapter 10, Mitchell applies both cliquing and structural
equivalence algorithms to Kapferer's Zambian data, before and after a labor
dispute, on shop-floor networks. He examines the extent to which these
analyses, as well as graph theoretic measures based in reachability and
distance, support and refine Kapferer's hypotheses about the structure and
shifts of patterns in the network.
In Chapter 11 a new algorithm (MAPCLUS) for finding overlapping
subsets is applied to matrices of structural equivalence coefficients from two
classic sociometric data sets: the Bank Wiring Group, and the Sampson
Monastery. Arabie and Carroll's results are similar in spirit to the
representations discussed in Chapter 2 for overlapping subsets and those of
Chapter 10 on "islands." The algorithm could be applied to any of the three
main types of positional problems above: (1) to find overlapping cliques,
using as input the raw relations of a symmetric graph; (2) to fmd overlapping
positions of structural equivalence, as exemplified here; or (3) to find
overlapping roles, using as input the regular equivalence coefficients of
Chapter 13.
Arabie and Carroll also note the difficulties of the classic clique-
finding problem of finding maximally complete subgroups of a graph. The
problem is NP-complete, and is thus likely to continue generating a plethora
of competing algorithms. MAPCLUS, on the other hand, uses a
computationally tractable procedure. It differs from other clustering
techniques in allowing implicit overlap, and providing explicit tests of
goodness-of-fit.
Chapter 12 examines the problem of finding non-overlapping clusters
of structurally equivalent points in a network. In the resulting blockmodel of
patterns of relatedness between sets of equivalent points, Heil shows how to
measure goodness-of-fit as a departure-towards high or low density
8 Introduction

blocs-from expected density under the null hypothesis. Using the fit
measure, he develops a procedure (COBLOC) for evaluating successive
agglomerations of points, resulting in a family of blockmodels. He
exemplifies the approach using the Bank Wiring Room data and shows
improvements in the COBLOC approach as compared to earlier
blockmodeling methods.
Chapter 13 takes the third approach to positions in a network, based on
"global" role structures. Reitz and White generalize the blockmodeling
approach to capture broader intuitions about the nature of such roles. They
develop two new types of blockmodels based on positional equivalences that
capture patterns of single-link and multiplex connectivities so that positions
in the network correspond to actor/counterpart relations in a system of
interconnected roles. Unlike the structural equivalence approach, they do
not require that equivalent actors are identically related to other actors, but
only that they have the same relations with some actors in counterpart
equivalence sets.
Thus, Reitz and White extend the network representation developed in
Chapter 1, but introduce a number of new structural concepts and defmitions
to represent the roles occupied by actors. They follow the strategy of
Chapter 2, moreover, in drawing on anthropological research on role
structures and attempting to formalize this richness in mathematical terms.
They present a number of new theorems about the hierarchical ordering of
positional equivalences (of types 2, 3, and 4 above), their uniqueness
properties, and connectivity properties. They show the implications of each
type of equivalence for inducing homomorphic images of the semigroup of
relations on a graph. This part of the chapter is closely related to Chapters 7
and 8, dealing with relational semigroups. In connection with Bonacich's
question, Reitz and White completely specify the conditions for graph homo -
morphisms to induce semigroup homomorphisms or isomorphisms, and they
provide tools for opening up new lines of research on graph and semigroup
structure.
Reitz and White introduce measures of regular equivalence and an
algorithm for finding regular blockmodels based on regular equivalence
coefficients. Their example shows the difference between the abstract
approach to role regularity and the approach based on structural equivalence.
Chapter 14 provides a probabilistic model for evaluating both local
and global aspects of role structure. Marsden asks three types of questions
about roles or subgroups: (1) what are the internal relations within the
category; (2) what are the types of relations by which category members are
connected to other members of the total network (e.g., isolate, receiver,
 Social Network Analysis 9

transmitter, carrier); and (3) do relations in the network differ depending on

the position occupied by an external transaction partner? Like Chapter 5,
they provide an integrated set of log-linear statistical models for the
evaluation of these questions in network data sets. The approach is
exemplified using data on interorganizational relations in a midwestern
community.
All of the papers in this last section build on solutions to problems in
the previous sections: a representation must be chosen, boundaries to the
problem must be set, and relations must be measured. Clustering of actors is
often implied by certain aspects of relational structure. A symmetric and
transitive relation, for example, will cluster actors into equivalence sets
(cliques). Clustering and positional problems thus come late in our ordering
of the logical priorities of network analysis.
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