EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Electrical Machines

Motor Generator
Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Electrical
energy energy energy energy

We will study the following machines:

 Induction motor
 Synchronous generator and motor
 DC motor

We will also look into transformers – useful in electrical power

distribution.

BUT….

Firstly, we need to look at the basic concepts of electrical

machines:

 Rotational motion and Newton’s Law

 Magnetic field and magnetic circuits
 Principles behind motor, generator and transformer action
 The Linear DC machine

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Chapter 1: Intro. to Machinery Principles

1.1. Rotational Motion

Machines rotate on a fixed shaft.

 = Angle of rotation measured from a fixed reference

point.


0

Unit: radians (rad) or degrees ().

 = Angular velocity/ speed  rate of change in

angular position with respect to time
It is analogous to linear velocity, v. Therefore,

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝜔= or 𝑣 = 1.1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Unit: radians per second (rads-1).

Angular velocity can also be expressed in terms of other

units.

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

f = Angular velocity in revolutions per second.

𝑤𝑚
𝑓=
2𝜋
(1.2)

n = Angular velocity in revolutions per minute.

60𝑤 30𝑤
𝑛𝑚 = 60𝑓𝑚 = = where f = 1/T (1.3)
2𝜋 2𝜋

 = Angular acceleration
It is analogous to linear acceleration, a. Hence,

𝑑𝜔
𝛼= (1.4)
𝑑𝑡

Unit: radians per second squared (rads-2).

Torque, 𝝉 is produced when a force exerts a twisting action on a

body. Unit: Newton-meters (Nm).

Definition:

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Direction of
torque 𝝉 = (force applied)(perpendicular)
𝝉 = (F) (r sin (180 − 𝜃))
= rF sin 𝜃 = F.x
x

Work, W is produced from the application of force, F through a

distance, r.

For linear motion:

W   F dr

For rotational motion, work = application of torque T through an

angle 
W    d (1.5)

However, when the torque applied is constant,

W   (1.6)
Unit: Joules (J).

Power, P is the rate of doing work. Unit: Watts (W).

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

𝑑𝑊
𝑃= (1.7)
𝑑𝑡
Applying this definition for rotating bodies, and assuming torque is
constant,

(1.8)

Equation (1.8) is very important!

It describes the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or
generator.

Real, Reactive and apparent Power in AC Circuits

I  I   

Load
vt  V  V0 Z  Z 

An AC voltage source supplying a load with impedance Z =Z∠𝜽°

Real power, P = power supplied to load.

Unit: Watts (W)

Reactive power, Q = energy that is stored and released in the

magnetic field of inductor or electric field of capacitor
Unit: Volts-ampere reactive (VAr)
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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Apparent power, S = power that “appears” to be supplied to load

if phase angle differences between voltage and current are ignored.
Unit: Volt-amperes (VA)

S = VI  1 VA = 1V x 1A

1.2. Newton’s Law of Rotation

For an object moving in a straight line, Newton’s Law is given by:

F  ma
where:
F = net force applied to the object
m = mass of object
a = resulting acceleration of object

In analogy, Newton’s Law of rotation for a rotating body is given

by:

(1.9)
where:
 = net torque applied to the object (Nm)
J = object mass in linear motion/moment of inertia (unit: kgm2)
 = resulting angular acceleration of object (rad/s2)

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

1.3. The Magnetic Field

The conversion of energy from one form to the other in motors,

generators and transformers is through the presence of the
magnetic field.

The production of a magnetic field by a current carrying conductor

is governed by Ampere’s Law:

 H  dl  I
H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current I. In SI
units, H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.

What if we have more than 1 conductor?

Then, use the total current passing through the closed path, i.e. N
turns each carrying the current I becomes Ni. Therefore,
(1.10)

The magnetic field intensity, H can be considered to be a measure

of the “effort” required by the current to create a magnetic field.

The relationship between the magnetic field intensity, H and the

produced magnetic flux density, B is given by:

(1.11)

The unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T).

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

In (1.11),  is the permeability of the material in which the

magnetic field is produced. It represents the relative ease of
establishing a magnetic field in a given material.

The permeability is usually written as:

where:
0 = permeability of free space = 4 x 10-7 H/m
(henries/meter)
r = relative permeability of a given material compared to
free space.

Note:
 permeability of air = permeability of free space.
 steels used in modern machines have r of 2000 to 6000.

Finally, we define the magnetic flux present in a given area by the

following equation:

(1.12)

where dA is the differential unit of area. If the flux density, B is

uniform over the cross-sectional area A, then:

(1.13)
The unit of magnetic flux is Webers (W).

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

1.4. Magnetic Circuits

In the simple magnetic core, we find that:

current I in the coil magnetic flux  in

of wire produces the core

Compare to:

voltage V in an current I flowing in

electric circuit produces the circuit

It is possible to define a magnetic circuit in which magnetic

behaviour is governed by simple equations analogous to those of
an electric circuit.

N turns

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

V  IR (1.14)
V = voltage or electromotive F = magnetomotive force
force (emf) (mmf)
I = current  = flux
R = resistance of circuit  = reluctance of circuit

We have two new quantities for the magnetic circuit:

 magnetomotive force, F
 reluctance, 

The magnetomotive force, F is equal to the effective current

flow applied to the core, i.e.
(1.15)
The mmf is measured in ampere-turns.

Similar to the voltage source, there is a polarity associated with

the mmf source. This is determined by the flux flow in the
magnetic circuit determined using the ‘right-hand rule’:

“If fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current
flowing in a coil of wire, the thumb will point in the direction of
positive mmf.”

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Therefore, for the simple magnetic core:

The reluctance  is analogous to resistance R in an electric

circuit. Its unit is ampere-turns per weber
(A. turns/Wb).

Due to the analogy, reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same

rules as resistances, i.e.

1. if the reluctances are connected in series:

2. if the reluctances are connected in parallel:

In order to obtain an expression for the reluctance, we look back at

the flux expression for the simple magnetic core obtained
previously:
(1.16)

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

By comparing 1.16 and 1.17,

(1.17)

Hence, the reluctance of a material of length l and cross-sectional

area A is given by:

Where Permeance, P = reciprocal of reluctance (analogous to

conductance G)

Magnetic circuits assist in analysing magnetic problems. However,

the analysis carried out are approximations due to the following
assumptions employed in the analysis:

1. assumptions in reluctance calculations (mean path length)

2. no leakage flux
3. no fringing effects – cross-sectional area of air gap equals
that of core.

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

I N

Leakage fluxes present in a simple Fringing effects in airgap.

magnetic core. Hence, effective cross-
sectional area of airgap is
larger than cross-sectional
of core in reality.

4. Permeability of ferromagnetic materials is usually

assumed to be constant or infinite.

Even so, magnetic circuit analysis is the easiest tool for flux
calculations giving satisfactory results.

Example1:
A ferromagnetic core is shown in figure below. Three sides of this
core are of uniform width, while the forth side is thinner. The
depth of the core is 10 cm, and the other dimensions are shown.
There is 200 turn coil wrapped around the left side of the core.
Assuming relative permeability, 𝜇 2500, how much flux will be
produced by 1A input current?

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

From here, the magnetic circuit is

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

1.5. Magnetic behaviour of ferromagnetic materials

Slope of B-H curve = permeability, 

Clearly,   constant in ferromagnetic materials.

After a certain point, increase in mmf gives almost no increase in

flux, i.e. material has saturated.

“Knee” of curve – transition region, operation point for most

electrical machines.

Advantage: get higher B for a given value of H.

The most important ferromagnetic material is iron.

Energy losses in ferromagnetic core

Two types of losses:

1. Hysteresis loss – energy required to accomplish the

reorientation of domains during each cycle of ac current
applied to the core.

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Trajectory of flux built-up in material is different for

increasing and decreasing current applied, i.e. hysteresis
loop.

Every cycle of AC current will drive the material around the

hysteresis loop once.

Energy loss  area enclosed in hysteresis loop.

2. Eddy current loss – produced by induced currents in the

material. (We will come back to this)

Both losses cause heating of core material and needs to be

considered in machine or transformer design.

Since both occur within the metal core, these losses are lumped
together and called core losses.

FACT:

1. Current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field, B.

2. Existence of ferromagnetic material (mainly iron) increases B
and provides easy path for magnetic flux flow.

Electrical machines (motors or generators) and transformers are

devices made up of iron and windings carrying current.

The basic principles behind the operation of these devices are

caused by the effect of magnetic field on its surroundings:

 Effect 1: Presence of a coil of wire in a time-changing

magnetic field induces voltage (transformer action)

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

 Effect 2: Force is induced on a current-carrying wire in the

presence of magnetic field (motor action)

 Effect 3: A moving wire in presence of a static magnetic field

induces voltage (generator action)

Lets look closer at each of these effects.

1.6. Effect 1: Faraday’s Law

“Flux  passing through a turn of coil induces voltage eind in it that

is proportional to the rate of change of flux with respect to time.”

d
Faraday’s Law in equation form: eind  
or for a coil having N turns: dt

(1.18)

Negative sign – induced voltage acts to oppose the flux producing

it (Lenz’s Law).


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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

Assumption for eq. (1.18): same flux present in each of N turns.

Not true in reality (due to leakages)!
Rewrite Faraday’s Law:

(1.19)

where  is flux linkage of the coil:

(1.20)
Units: Weber-turns.
Faraday’s Law is the basis of transformer action, i.e. have static
coils (or conductors) in a varying magnetic field.

But Faraday’s Law also applies if you have:

 Moving conductor in a stationary field
 Moving conductor in a varying field

Back to eddy current losses…

Cause: The time-varying flux also induces voltage, hence swirls

of currents to flow, within the ferromagnetic core.

Effect: heat is dissipated by the swirls of current flowing within

the resistive core. Energy loss  size of current paths.

Solution: Lamination of ferromagnetic core, i.e. break up core

into thin strips, separated by insulation to limit the areas in which
eddy currents can flow.

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

1.7. Effect 2: Induced force on a current carrying wire

Charges moving in a magnetic field experience a force.

If the moving charges are a current flowing in a conductor, a force
acting on the conductor is observed.

General equation for the force induced on the conductor:

(1.21)

Hence, force magnitude:

(1.22)
( = angle between conductor and the flux density vector)

Direction of force: Fleming’s left hand rule

,B First finger: Field

SeCond finger: current
ThuMb : motion

Note: In the book, the right hand is used but with different fingers
representing different quantities. Do not mix them up! Stick to one
convention and remember only it!
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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

1.8. Effect 3: Induced voltage on a moving wire

Now, take the same conductor on rails example above. But, take of
the DC voltage source and connect and voltmeter instead. (Note:
The conductor is still placed in a constant magnetic field region.)

Then, move the conductor to the right. What do we get?

Voltage is induced in the system!
General equation for the induced voltage:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (v × B). 𝑙 (1.23)
v = velocity of the wire
B = magnetic flux density vector
l = length of conductor in the magnetic field

Note: The value of l is dependent upon the angle at which the wire
cuts through the magnetic field. Hence a more complete formula
will be as follows:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (v × B sinθ). 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
(1.24)
where  = anglebetween the conductor and the direction of the


v  B vector.

Direction of force: Fleming’s right hand rule

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

First finger: Force

SeCond finger: Current
ThuMb : Motion

This effect is basis of generator action, i.e. induction of voltages

in a moving wire located in a magnetic field.

1.9. The Linear DC machine

It operates on the same principles and exhibits the same behaviours

as real generators and motors.
Construction: Conducting bar placed on a pair of smooth,
frictionless rails in a constant, uniform magnetic field.

To investigate its behaviour, 4 basic equations are required:

1. Force production on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field:
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙. 𝐵) (1.25)

F = force on wire
i = magnitude of current in wire
B = magnitude flux density vector
l = length of wire, with direction defined in direction of current
flow

2. Voltage induced on a wire moving in a magnetic field:

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (v × B). 𝑙 (1.26)

v = velocity of the wire
B = magnetic flux density vector
l = length of conductor in the magnetic field
eind = induced voltage in wire

3. Kirchoff’s voltage law for the machine:

VB – iR – eind = 0
VB = eind + iR = 0 (1.27)

4. Newton’s law for the bar lying across the rails:

Fnet = ma (1.28)

The fundamental behaviour of the simple DC machine will be

examined through three cases.

Case 1: Starting the Linear DC machine

1. The switch is closed and current is allowed to flow in the bar.

From Kirchoff’s voltage law:

(1.29)

Note: eind = 0 because the bar is at rest.

2. With current flowing downwards in the bar, force is produced

on it.
(1.30)
Direction of movement: towards the right

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

3. Based on Newton’s law, bar will accelerate to the right. This

motion will cause voltage to be induced across the current-
carrying bar.
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (v. B). 𝑙 (1.31)

Direction of induced voltage: positive upwards

4. The induced voltage will cause the current flowing to be

reduced. Look back to Kirchoff’s voltage low:

5. This reduction in current will be followed by a decrease in the

force production since

Eventually, F  0 . At which point: reach a constant steady

state speed

And the bar will move at a constant no-load speed,

(1.32)

Case 2: The Linear DC machine as a motor

Assume the linear DC machine is running at no-load and under

steady state conditions, i.e. steady state velocity of vss. When
external load is given;

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

R i(t)


VB eind l v

Event Outcome

Fload applied opposite to the
1 Effect of load will slow down the
direction of motion (i.e. to left)
bar
2 Negative force Bar slows down ( i.e. v )
3 Reduction in bar speed (v ) Induced voltage will reduce
4 Reduction in induced voltage Increase in bar current flow
Force induced/acting on bar
5 Bar travels at steady speed
increases
This force will increase until it is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the load force, i.e. F  Fload , which will occur at
a lower speed v.

The force F induced in the bar is in the direction of motion of the

bar and power has been converted from electrical form to
mechanical form to keep the bar moving.
The converted power is:

(1.33)
Electrical power Mechanical power
consumed, created,
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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

The bar is operating as a motor because power is converted

from electrical to mechanical form.

Where the induced torque, 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 is the rotational analog of the

induced force, Find and the angular velocity, 𝜔 is the rotational
analog of the linear velocity, v.

Case 3: The Linear DC machine as a generator

The DC machine is assumed to operating under no-load steady
state conditions.
R i(t)

VB eind l 
v

 Event Outcome
Fapp applied in the direction of
1 Fnet is in the direction of motion
motion (i.e. to right)
2 Positive acceleration Bar speeds up ( i.e. v )
3 Increase in bar speed (v ) increases

4
At higher speed, v
Converted to electrical power
5 Mechanical force

This will continue until F  Fapp which will cause the bar to reach
a new steady state and move at a higher speed v.
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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– Introduction to Machinery Principles

The reversal of current means that the linear DC machine is now

charging the battery, i.e. it is acting as a generator that converts
mechanical power into electric power.
Note:
 Same machine can act as both motor and generator.
 Difference lies in the direction of external force applied with
respect to direction of motion.
 In both operations, induced voltage and force are both
present at all times.
 Machine movement is always in the same direction.

Starting problems with the Linear DC machine

As stated previously, when the linear machine is started, there is no

induced emf present, i.e. eind  0 . Therefore, the starting current is
given by:

As we can see, istart  1 R .

Typical machines have small R and are supplied with rated V,

therefore the istart will be very high (more than 10 times rated
current).
Consequence: Possibility of severe damage to motors. Solution:
insert an extra resistance into the circuit during starting of motor.
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