Module 6: Magnetic Circuits

The electromagnetic system is an essential element in all rotating electric machinery, electromechanical
devices and transformers. Electromagnetic systems establish and control em firlds for carrying out
conversion of energy, its processing and transfer.

Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Consider a current carrying conductor. The current causes a magnetic field to be established in its
surrounding space. The magnetic field force can be felt on a north pole at any point in the magnetic
field. Lines of flux formed around the conducting wire. A line of flux is a closed path around the
current wire such that the magnetic force is tangential to the current at all point around the line.

The direction of flux is given by the right-hand-rule. Because the conducting wire is symmetrically
cylindrical, the lines of flux are circular. These lines are denser near the conductor and become reaer
farther from it.

Magnetic intensity or magnetizing force (H) is defined as the current that causing it per unit length of
flux line.
i
H= A/m where r is mean radius of the flux
2πr
A
r

H is uniform along the flux line. Flux density B, established by this magnetic field intensity is given by

B = μ H Wb/m2 or Tesla (T)

For non-magnetic materials μ = μ0 = 4π x 10-7 Wb/Am …. permeability of free space
For magnetic materials μ = μ0 μ r where μ r is the relative permeability of magnetic material. It is in the range
of 2000 to 4000. it is 1 for non-magnetic materials.

For uniform flux density perpendicular to area A, flux passing through the area is
Ф = BA
If flux makes an angle θ with the perpendicular of surface, then

Ф = BA cos θ
B and H are vectors. Ф is a scalar.

Magnetic Circuit

A magnetic circuit may be defined as a path which is followed by magnetic flux. The law of magnetic
circuit are similar to those of the electric circuit.

Consider a toroidal iron ring having a magnetic path of

length = l metres = 2πr where r is mean radius of the toroid.

cross-section area = A m2
Number of coil turns wound on toroid = N
Current in coil = I Amperes
N∗I
then magnetic field strength in the toroid, H = Amp-turns/m
l
N∗I
we know flux density = µ0µr H = µ0µr Wb.m2
l
N∗I N∗I
total flux produced, Φ = B*A = µ0µrA Wb = where µ = µ0µr
l l /µA

The current NI, which produces magnetization in the magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force
(mmf). Its unit is Ampere-turn, AT. It is analogous to emf in electric circuit.

l/µ0µrA is called reluctance of the circuit. This is analogous to resistance in electric circuits. This is
denoted as S.

mmf mmf
Therefore, Φ = = …............. Ohm's law of magnetic circuit
reluctance S

Some examples of magnetic circuits

Definitions concerning Magnetic Circuit

• Magnetomotive Force (mmf) drives or tends to drive flux through a magnetic circuit and
corresponds to electromotive force (emf) in an electric circuit. MMF is equal to the work done
in joules in carrying a unit magnetic pole once through the entire magnetic circuit. It is
measured in amepere-turns.
• Ampere-turns (AT) is the unit of magnetomotive force and is given by the produc of number of
turns of a magnetic circuit and the current in amperes in those turns
• Reluctance is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the creation of
magnetic flux in it. This is analogous to the resistance in an electric circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb.
l
Reluctance =
µA
• Permeance is reciprocal of reluctance and implies the readiness with which magnetic flux is
developed. It is analogous to conductance in electric circuit. It is meanured in Wb/AT
• Reluctivity is the specific reluctance and corresponds to resistivity.
Composite Series Magnetic Circuit

Example: Find the exciting current, i, needed to cause a flux density of Bg = 1.2 T in the air gap.
Given µr = 4000.

20cm
N = 400 Air gap of
2mm
A=4x4 cm2

16cm
This is a composite series magnetic circuit,
consisting of different materials – iron core and air gap. Each material has different permeability and
length. Each path will have its own reluctance.

The total reluctance is the sum of individual reluctances as they are joined in series.

1
Total reluctance = reluctance of core + reluctance of air gap ∑
µr µ0 A
l
reluctance of core: =
µA
l = mean perimeter of the core = 2[(20cm – 4cm) + (16cm – 4cm ) - 2mm
4cm is the thickness of the core.
= 2(28)cm – 0.2cm = 55.8 cm = 55.8x10-2 m

µ = µ0µr = 4000 x 4πx10-7

55.8∗10
reluctance = = 69381 AT/Wb
4000∗4π∗10

l 2mm
reluctance of air gap = = = 9.95*105
µA 4π∗10 4cm∗4cm
total reluctance = 69382 + 9.95*105 = 10.64*105
flux in magnetic circuit Φ = AB = 16*10-4 * 1.2 = 1.92*10-3 Wb

mmf = Ni = reluctance * Φ
Therefore, = reluctance * Φ /N =5.11 A

How to Find Magnetomotive Force (Ampere-turns)

• Find magnetic intensity H for each portion of the composite circuit . B = μ H

• Find mmf for each path separately by using the formula mmf = Hl
• Sum up all these mmf's to get the total mmf for the entire circuit.

Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

Flux = mmf/reluctance Current = emf / resistance
MMF AT EMF volts
Flux Φ Wb Current I Amperes
Flux density B Current density A/mP2
l l
Relctance S= Resistance R =
μA σA
Reluctivity Resistivity
Permeability Conductance
Total mmf = ΦS1 + ΦS2 +... Total emf = IR1 + IR2 +......

Differences between Magnetic and Electric Circuit

1. flux actually does not flow in the sense in which an electric current flows
2. if temperature is kept constant, then resistance of an electric circuit is constant and is
independent of the current density.
Reluctance of a magnetic circuit depends on flux established in it. It is so because μ is not
constant even for a given material and it depends of flux density B
3. flow of current in electric circuit involves continuous expenditure of energy. But in a magnetic
circuit, energy is needed only to create the flux initially but not for maintaining it.

Parallel Magnetic Circuits

l1 l1

A
Φ
I
Φ/2 Φ/2
D C
l2

Two magnetic paths exist – ACB and ADB. Same mmf acts up on these paths. each magnetic path has
an average length of 2l1 + l2. The flux produced by current is equally divided between the two paths at
point A and join at point B.
Example: A cast steel magnetic structure made for a bar of section 8cm x 2cm is shown below.
Determine the current that the 500 turn magnetizing coil on the left limb should carry so that a flux of 2
mWb is produced in the right limb. Assume relative permeability is 600 and neglect leakage.

Paths C and D are parallel. Therefore the mmf across the two is the same.
Given information:
Ф2 = 2 mWb A= 8cm x 2 cm = 16*10-4 m2 l1 = 15 cm l2 = 25 cm N = 500 turns
Ф1S1 = Ф2S2
15 25
S1 = S2 = 2
μA μA
μ = 600*4π*10-7
15 25
Ф1 =2x or Ф1 = 50/15 = 10 / 3 mWb
μA μA
Ф = Ф1 + Ф2 = 2 + 10/3 = 16/3 mWb = 5.333 Wb

Total AT (mmf) required for the whole circuit = mmf required for path E + mms required for either of
the paths C or D
flux density in path E = ФS = 5.333

mmf required =

Flux density in path D = ФS2 = 2*10-3*

E C D
Φ
I
Φ1 Φ2
15cm

B
Series-Parallel Magnetic Circuit

A series-parallel magnetic circuit has both parallel paths and series path. Referring to figure below,
there are two parallel paths for flux – ACB and ADB. These paths are connected to common path AB,
which contains air gap of length, lg.. Flux in common core is divided equally at point A between the two
parallel paths.

Reluctance of path AB = reluctance of core AB + reluctance of air gap

mmf required for this circuit = mmf required for the air gap + mmf required for either of the two
parallel paths (not both)
Leakage Flux is the flux which follows a path that is not intended for it. It is impossible to confine all
the flux to the iron core only. Hence, some of the flux leaks through air surrounding the iron ring.

There is no known insulator for magnetic flux. Even in the best-designed electric machines, it is found
that 15 to 20% of total flux leaks away.

If total flux produced in the circuit = Фt

and useful flux available in the air gap = Ф
then leakage coefficient, λ = Фt / Ф

λ varies between 1.1 to 1.125 in modern machines.

In electric machines, magnetic leakage is undesirable. Leakage flux does not lower the machine's
power efficiency. But it causes more weight to the machine and increases cost of manufacturing.

Magnetic leakage can be minimized by placing the exciting coils as close to the air gap as possible or
to the point in the circuit where flux is to be utilized for useful purposes.

Fringing or spreading of lines of flux at the edges of the air gap causes
increase in effective area of air gap. Flux lines cross the air gap from the top
surface of the core to the bottom surface of the core. So the upper surface
behaves like a north pole and the bottom surface like a south pole. Thus all
the flux lines will not be vertical and confined to the core face area alone.
Some lines of force in fact will reach the bottom surface via bulged out
curved paths outside the face area of the core. These flux which follow these
curved paths are called fringing flux and the phenomenon is called fringing
effect .

Magnetic Materials and Magnetization curve

Magnetization curve is a graph between magnetic intensity (H) and flux density (B) for a material.

Magnetic materials are characterized by high permeability and non-linear B-H curve. B-H curve in
these materials exhibits saturation and hysteresis.

Magnetic materials are classified into

• Ferromagnetic materials – have higher flux densities in the range of 2.18 T. ex: iron and its
alloys such as chrome steels, copper-nickel alloys
• Ferrimagnetic materials – consist of mixed oxides of iron and other metals. These are ferrite
materials, these are chemically homogeneous and extremely hard. These materials have lower
flux density in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 T

The B-H curve for cyclic H is the hysteresis curve for a material. The tip of each hysteresis loop
corresponds to maximum H of the cyclic variation. The portions of loops for decreasing H lie above the
portions for increasing H. this represents the lag in hysteresis and is typical for magnetic materials.

The B-H curve is the normal magnetization curve. It is nonlinear initially, nearly linear in the middle
and exhibits saturation for high values of H. for extremely high values of H, B-H curve possesses a
slope corresponding to that of free space.
B-H curve is used in magnetic circuit calculations and hysteresis effects.

Heat treatment and mechanical handling of magnetic materials affect its B-H curve. Therefore, high
degree of precision need not be attempted in calculations.
Ferrite materials have square hysteresis loop. Their hysteresis shows bistable nature of B. ferrite
materials are generally used in switching circuits, as storage devices (used as memory in oldest
computers before the advent of electronic memory) and as special type of transformers in electronic
circuits.

Magnetization curves can be determined by two ways

• by means of a ballistic galvanometer
• by means of a flux meter

For using both methods, the material for which magnetization curve is to be drawn is in the form of a
ring.

Magnetization Curve by Ballistic Galvanometer

A specimen ring of uniform cross-section is used in the experiment. Two coils are wound on the ring.
• A primary coil, P, of N1 turns. This is connected to a battery through variable resistance R1 and
a reversible switch (RS). Current direction in the coil P can be reversed by reversing the switch.
By changing value of R1, we can change the value of current in coil P
• A secondary coil, S, of turns N2, is also wound on the ring. This coil is connected to a ballistic
galvanometer, BG.

An amount of current is passed through primary coil, P. Then the current direction is reversed. This
change will cause the flux in the magnetic circuit to be reversed too. The flux in secondary coil, S is
also reversed. This change in flux causes an emf to be developed in S and current passes through the
coil S. this current passes through BG and it shows a deflection. This current is of very short duration.
The first deflection (also called “throw”) of the BG is proportional to the current passing through it.

Suppose the first deflection of BG = θ

and BG constant = k
Then the charge passing through BG = kθ

Suppose flux produced by current in primary coil = Ф Wb

and time of reversal of flux = t seconds
then the rate of change of flux = 2 Ф/t Wb/s
Average emf induced in secondary coil S = N2 *2 Ф / t volt

Current through S and in BG = N2 *2 Ф / (tRS) Amp where RS is total resistance of secondary circuit

Charge through BG = average current * time = N2 *2 Ф t/ (tRS) = N2 *2 Ф / RS

kθ = N2 *2 Ф / RS => Ф = kθ RS / 2N2 Wb

Flux density B = kθ RS / 2N2 A Wb/m2

Magnetic intensity H = N1 I / l AT/m

By obtaining B and H values for various values of current, we can plot magnetization curve.

Magnetization Curve using Flux Meter

This method is similar to BG method, except we connect a flux meter in place of BG. Flux meter is a
special type of ballistic galvanometer.

When current through primary coil reversed, the flux is also reversed. Flux meter deflects due to this
reversal in the flux. The deflection is proportional to the change in flux-linkage in secondary coil, S.

If flux is reversed from + Ф to – Ф,

then change in flux = 2 Ф
change in flux linkages in S = 2Ф*N2
If deflection in flux meter = θ
flux meter constant = c
then change in flux linkages = cθ
 cθ = 2Ф*N2 or Ф = cθ / 2N2 Wb

cθ
Flux density B = Wb/m2
2N 2 A

magnetic intensity H = N1I/l AT/m

Again, we can obtain B and H values for various values of current in primary coil and plot the
magnetization curve.

Summary of Formulas to remember

Magnetomotive force mmf = NI Amp-turns = ФS

N∗I mmf
Magnetic Intensity H = = AT/m
l l

l 1
Reluctance S = Permeance P =
μA S

Permeability μ = μ0μr

Flux density B = Ф/A = μH Wb/m2 (or T)

Фt
Leakage Coefficient λ =
Ф

With ballistic galvanometer

B = kθ RS / 2N2A Wb/m2

N1∗I
H= AT/m
l

With flux meter

B = cθ RS / 2N2A Wb/m2

N1∗I
H= AT/m
l
 Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction.

First law: states that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, and emf is
always induced in it. Or whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is induced in the
conductor.
Second law: states that the magnitude of emf induced is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages.

Let us consider a coil of N turns.

Let the flux through the coil changes from Φ1 to Φ2 in t seconds.

Initial flux linkages = NΦ1

final flux linkages = NΦ2
NΦ 2−NΦ1 Φ −Φ 1
induced emf, e = = N 2 Volt
t t
dΦ dλ
or e = N = where λ = NΦ = flux linkages of the coil
dt dt

A minus sign is given to right hand side to signify that the induced emf would tend to cause a current
flow in the coil which would oppose the change in flux, according to Lenz's law.

dΦ dλ
e=- N =-
dt dt

Direction of induced emf and current are explained by Fleming's right-hand-rule

If you forgot.....

Fleming's left-hand rule (for motors), and Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators) are a pair of visual
mnemonics. They were originated by John Ambrose Fleming, in the late 19th century, as a simple way
of working out the direction of motion in an electric motor, or the direction of electric current in an
electric generator.
When an electric current flows in a wire, and an external magnetic field is applied across that flow, the
wire experiences a force perpendicular both to that field and to the direction of the current flow. A left
hand can be held, as shown in the illustration, so as to represent three mutually orthogonal axes on the
thumb, first finger and middle finger. Each finger is then assigned to a quantity (electric current,
magnetic field and mechanical force). The right and left hand are used for generators and motors
respectively.
Fleming's right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of the induced current when a conductor
cuts through the magnetic field lines perpendicularly. It is memorized by the right hand as follows:

Now back to the lesson

Flux linkages in a coil may be developed in two ways:

• dynamically induced emf.
• statically induced emf – is again of two types
• self induced emf
• mutually induced emf

Dynamically induced emf - flux density distribution remains constant and stationary in space, but the
coil moves relative to it so as to change flux linkages in the coil. Direction of emf e is determined by
right hand rule.
Ex: electrical generator
Bldx
Rate of change of flux-linkages, e = = Blv volt
dt
where l = length of conductor within the magnetic field
Bldx = change in flux
v = velocity of the conductor
If the conductor moves at an angle θ with the direction of flux then e = Blv sin θ
In electric machines θ = 900
e = Blv volt.

Statically induced emf - the coil remains stationary and flux through it changes with time.
Ex: transformers

Statically induced emf can be of two types

Self Induced emf

Self induced emf is produced in the coil due to change of its own flux linked with itself.

When a current is established in a conductor, a magnetic field is produced in its vicinity. We can
visualize this field in terms of magnetic flux. If steady current flows the number of lines of force at a
given place would remain the same. But when the current changes, the flux-linkages change and an emf
is induced in the coil. This emf is called the self induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is such
that it opposes any change in flux in coil.

dΦ dΦ di di dΦ
self induced emf, e = =N =L (since N = L)
dt di dt dt di
This equation is valid for magnetic materials whose B-H curve is linear.
For a nonlinear B-H curved materials,
∂i ∂L
emf, e = dλ / dt = L i
∂t ∂t

For materials with a linear B-H curve, L can be expressed as

NΦ λ
L= = Henry (WbT/A)
i i

Thus whenever an effort is made to increase current in the coil, it is always opposed by the
instantaneous production of self-induced emf. Energy required to overcome this opposition is supplied
by the battery. Similarly, when an effort is made to decrease the current it is again delayed by self-
induced emf. This property of the coil due to which it opposes any change in current through t is called
self inductance. This property is measured in terms of coefficient of self induction (L).

L is defined as the weber-turns per ampere in the coil.

NΦ
L= =μ
i

¿ N
Φ N
We know Φ = l or = l =
I S
μr μ0 A μr μ0 A

N
N μr μ0 A N 2 N
2
L= l = =
μr μ0 A l S

Mutually Induced emf and Mutual Inductance

When two coils are wound on a common core, or placed close to each other, a part of the flux produced
by one coil also links the other coil. This leads to the concept of mutual inductance. If current in one
coil changes, flux linked with the other coil also changes and induces an emf in the second coil. The
magnitude of the induced emf in second coil can be found by Faraday's law. Direction of such emf can
be found by Lenz's law.

λ12
Mutual inductance L12 or M12 = H
i2

λ21
Mutual inductance L21 or M21 = H
i1

where λ12 is flux-linkages of coil 1 due to current in coil 2

and λ21 is flux-linkages of coil 2 due to current in coil 1
for a bidirectional magnetic circuit M12 = M21 = M
In general, in a magnetic circuit M = k  L1 L2

The dot notation is used to fefine the sign in mutual inductance. For current flowing into the dotted
terminal, each coil produces mutual flux in the same direction. When both coils are carrying current,
total flux-linkages are given by

λ1 = L11i1 + L12i2 where L12 and L21 are mutual inductances and
λ2 = L21i1 + L22i2 where L11 and L22 are self inductances and

induced emf in each coil are

e1 =

Energy Stored in Magnetic Circuits

Figure below shows a self inductance with iron core. R is resistance of the coil wire, shown separately,
so that the coil represents pure inductance.

Electrical energy inputted to the inductance, and that gets stored in the magnetic system in time dt is
dW = ei dt = dW where dW is change in the magnetic field energy

dλ
we know that e =
dt
dλ
dW = idt = idλ
dt
The field energy absorbed by the system in establishing the flux-linkages λ from zero-state is

Li 2
W = ∫ dW f = ∫ idλ = ∫ iLdi = L∫ idi =
2
2 2
N i
Wf = λi/2 =
2S
In case of an air gap in the core, Sgap >> Score
therefore, maor portion of magnetic field energy would reside in the air gap.

For two coupled coils Wf = ∫ i1 dλ1 + ∫ i2 dλ2

derivation comes here
AC Operation of Magnetic Circuits
Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses

When magnetic materials undergo cyclic variation of flux density, hysteresis and eddy-current losses
occur in them. These losses together are called the core losses and appear in the form of heat. Core loss
in important in determining temperature rise in the core, its rating and efficiency of ac-operated
electromagnetic devices.

Hysteresis Loss
Eddy-current Loss
Since core is made up of conducting material, voltages induced in it by alternating flux produce
circulating currents in the core. These currents are called eddy currents. These are accompanied by i2r
losses and are called eddy-current losses. Since induced voltages and currents are proportional to
frequency and flux density, eddy-current loss is also proportional to frequency and flux density.

Adding silicon to iron increases the effective resistance of eddy-current paths. Therefore ke reduced and
in turn, loss is reduced. Laminating the core parallel to flux also increases the effective resistance and
causes reduction in eddy-current losses.