Introduction to Electrical Machines

Chapter-1
Electromagnetism

By Biset S.

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 Introduction
 Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical
device used today in industry, research, or the home.
 Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions,
computers, telephones etc. all employ magnetic principles

 All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields

produced by permanent or electromagnets.
 Magnetic fields are created by AC and DC sources to provide
the necessary medium for developing generator or motor
action.

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 Cont…
Magnetic Field
 Magnetic field is a region in space in which a compass needle is
acted upon.
 The oldest magnetic instrument is a suspended permanent
magnet, called a compass
 In a region where there are no large magnetic objects:-
 The compass needle points in a general north-south longitudinal
direction, with the "north" pole of the compass pointing to the earth's
north magnetic pole.

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 Cont…
 In spite of the fact that the attracting poles of the compass and the
earth must be of opposite polarity , this north seeking pole of the
compass is defined as N-pole and the south seeking is S-pole
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
 Directed from north to south outside a magnet
 Continuous and never cross each other
 Enter or leave a magnetic surface at right angles
 Tend to be as short as possible
 In the same direction tend to repel each other
 Occupy three-dimensional space extending (theoretically) to infinity

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 Cont…
Electromagnetic Relationships
1. Magnetic Lines of Force
 The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic field
is the magnetic line of force (magnetic flux)
 In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called
Webbers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is ∅ (the Greek
lowercase letter phi)

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 Cont…

2. Magnetic Flux Density

 The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not
uniformly distributed.
 A more useful measure of the magnetic effect is the magnetic
flux density
 It is measured in units of tesla (T) and is given the symbol B.

𝐵=∅ 𝐴 Where B = magnetic flux density, T

∅ = magnetic flux, Wb
A=area , m2

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 Cont…
Example 1: The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent
magnet is found to be 0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a circular cross
section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the magnetic flux density at
the end of the magnet?
Solution: ∅ = 0.032 ∗ 10−3 wb
𝑑2 (0.01)2
𝐴 =𝜋 =𝜋 =78.53 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
4 4
∅ 0.032∗10−3 wb
𝐵 = 𝐴= =0.407T
78.53∗10−6 𝑚2

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 Cont…

3. Flux Linkage
 For a coil of wire, the flux passing through the coil is the product
of the number of turns, N, and the flux passing through a single
turn, Ф.
 This product is called the magnetic flux linkage of the coil, λ.
i.e., λ = NФ weber-turns.

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 Cont…

4. Magneto motive Force (mmf)

 We now that magnetic flux is affected by the change in the
current in a coil and also the number of turns.
 Implies that magnetic flux is proportional to the products of amperes
and turns.

 This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux is called the

magneto motive force (MMF) and has the units of ampere-turns
(At).

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 Cont…

i.e. mmf=Fm=NI
Where; mmf = Fm = Magneto motive force
I= current in Amperes
N= No of turns of conducting material.

Example 2: The coil in Fig. below has 1000 turns wound on a

cardboard toroid having a diameter of 10 cm, and the cross
section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux in the toroid is 3µWb
when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.

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 Cont..
A) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20
mA?
B)What is the magnetic flux density when the current is 20 mA?

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 Cont…
Solution:
A) If we double the current to 20 mA, then mmf = Fm =NI =1000x
20x10-3 =20At and Ф must double to 6 µWb.
B) 𝐵 = ∅ 𝐴=6 ∗ 10−6 /(𝜋/4) (10−4 ) = 76𝑚𝑇

5. Magnetic Reluctance
 It is the property of the magnetic material which opposes the
creation of magnetic flux in it.
 It is the ratio of magneto motive force to the flux

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 Cont…
𝑓𝑚
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑚 = ∅
 It Implies 𝑓𝑚 =𝑅𝑚 * ∅…. Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits
 For a homogenous magnetic circuit

𝑙
𝑅𝑚 =
𝜇∗𝐴
Where l=Average /mean length of magnetic path (m)
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 total permeability of path (𝐻 𝑚)

A= Area of path(𝑚2 )

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 Cont…
6. Magnetic field intensity(H)
 It is also called magnetizing force and is the mmf gradient per
unit length of magnetic circuit having unit of 𝐴𝑡
𝑚

i.e. 𝐻 = 𝑓𝑚 𝑙

 We have seen that more ampere-turns (MMF) are required to set

up the same magnetic flux in magnetic circuits of air than in
iron of similar configuration.
 Hence the magnetic field intensity for the air path is much
larger than for the iron path. (Prove 𝐵 = 𝜇 ∗ 𝐻)

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 Cont…
7. Permeability
 Is the magnetic property that determines the characteristics of
magnetic materials and nonmagnetic materials
 It is the reciprocal of reluctance
 The total permeability of magnetic materials is much greater
than air or non magnetic materials
 The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials has
the following symbol and constant value in SI units:

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 Cont…

Example 3: In example 2 above lets assume that the magnetic

flux is uniform in the cross-section and the mean path length is
0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through which the flux
exists is 78.5 x 10−6 𝑚2 . Calculate the number of ampere-turns
required to set up magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
𝑙 0.314
Solution: 𝑅𝑚 = = = 3.18 ∗ 109 𝐴𝑡 𝑤𝑏
𝜇∗𝐴 4π∗10−7 ∗78.5∗10−6

𝑓𝑚 =𝑅𝑚 ∗ ∅ = 3.18 ∗ 109 At

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 Magnetic Circuits
 A toroid of homogeneous magnetic material, such as iron or
steel, is wound with a fixed number of turns of insulated wire.
 Magnetic devices such as transformers, motors, generators,
toroid’s, relays etc. are considered as a magnetic circuit.

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 Cont…
Analogous between Electrical and Magnetic
Circuits
 In an electrical circuit the driving force is the voltage, the output is
the current, and the opposition to establishing current is the
resistance.
 In the same way, the driving force in the magnetic circuit is the
magneto motive force, the output is the magnetic flux, and
opposition to establishing the flux is the reluctance.

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 Cont…

Fig: (a) Iron-core toroid with air gap: (b) analogous electric
circuit; (c) analogous magnetic circuit

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 Cont…

 The general principles of electric circuits embodied in Ohm's

and Kirchhoff’s laws are applied as analogous equivalents to
magnetic circuits.

 In analogous equivalents, Kirchhoff's current law for

magnetic circuits states that the sum of magnetic fluxes
entering a junction or node is equal to the sum of magnetic
fluxes leaving the junction or node

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 Cont…
1. Series Magnetic Circuit
 A series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is
common throughout the circuit, different mmf across each
element and the total reluctance is the sum of each element.
 Each element may consist of composite sectors of
ferromagnetic materials of different lengths and cross-
sectional areas, including the air gaps.
 The simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of
homogeneous material and the steel core of a transformer.

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 Cont…
Example 4: A closed magnetic circuit of cast iron consists of two
magnetic circuit paths. One of the paths is 12cm long while the
other is 4cm long and of cross-sectional areas of 2𝑐𝑚2 and 1𝑐𝑚2
respectively. A coil of 400 turns is wound round the 12cm length
path of the magnetic circuit. If a current of 0.5A flows in the
12cm length path, determine the flux density in the 4cm path
assuming 𝜇𝑟 of the iron to be 250.

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Cont…

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 Cont…
Example 5: A magnetic circuit with an air gap 2mm long has the following
dimensions; L1 =16cm , L2= 10cm Area A1= 4𝑐𝑚2 and A2=2𝑐𝑚2 . A Coil of
1000 turns of wire is wound on the iron circuit and carries a current of 1.5A.
At the operating flux density, the permeability of L2 is 1000H/m, determine;
a) The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit

b) b) The magnitude of the flux in the air gap.

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Cont…

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 Cont…
2. Parallel Magnetic Circuit
 A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flow
of flux is called parallel magnetic circuit.
 The analysis here is analogous to that of the parallel electric
circuit.

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 Cont…
 In the fig. above a coil of N-turns is wound on limb XC and it
carries a current of I amperes.
 The flux ∅1 produced by the coil divides at Y into two paths:
 Flux ∅2 which passes through path YB
 Flux ∅3 which passes through path YZAB

It implies ∅1 =∅2 +∅3

 The magnetic path YB is parallel to the magnetic path YZAB,
thus forming parallel magnetic circuit.
 The mmf required for this parallel circuit (YB//YZAB) is
equal to mmf required for any one of the paths.

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 Cont…
 For instance;
Let 𝑅1 = reluctance of path X YBC
𝑅2 = reluctance of path YB
𝑅3 = reluctance of path YZAB
 Total mmf= mmf for XYBC + mmf for YB or mmf for YZAB

 The effective reluctance of the parallel branches R2 and R3 is given

by;

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 Cont…
 Total reluctance in the magnetic circuit is

 It should be noted that the reluctance 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 should be

determined from a calculation of ;

Example 6: A magnetic core is made of iron which has dimensions as shown

in the magnetic circuit. The magnetic core has uniform cross 20cm2. If the flux
4000µWb due to coil A passes through paths A and B with none through C,
determine;

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 Cont…
i. The mmf for the coil
ii. The mmf for coil C due to the coil wound around path C

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Cont…

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Cont…

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 Cont…

Magnetic Leakage and fringing

 In a magnetic circuit containing air gaps, there is a tendency of
the air gap flux to spread out or create a bugle called fringing.
 Thus, the flux in the magnetic circuit which is not useful is
known as leakage flux.

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 Cont…
Ampere’s Circuital Law of Magnetic Circuit
 The law states that, the algebraic sum of the rises and drops of
mmf around a closed loop equals to zero.
 In other words, the sum of the mmf rises in a closed circuit are
equal to the sum of the drops around the magnetic circuit loop.
 The most utilized equation for mmf drops in a magnetic circuit
is expressed by:

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 Cont…
 Applying this law on a magnetic loop made of different
ferromagnetic materials the equation will be expressed as;
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐻1 𝑙1 + 𝐻2 𝑙2 +….+𝐻𝑛 𝑙𝑛
Implies 𝐹𝑚 − 𝐻1 𝑙1 − 𝐻2 𝑙2 −….−𝐻𝑛 𝑙𝑛 = 0
 Lets consider a magnetic core which is made of different
ferromagnetic materials as shown in the fig. below

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Cont…

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 Cont…

Example 7: A piece of electromagnet consists of two sections made of cast

iron and steel as shown in the magnetic circuit of figure below. Determine the
current I to establish the indicated flux in the core given that the magnetizing
force for steel and iron are 70At/m and 1600 At/m respectively. Its dimension
is 5cm uniform.

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Cont…

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 Cont…
Hysteresis
 It is the process of completely demagnetizing a well known
magnetic material.
 Hysteresis is better demonstrated and understood with the
graph shown in figure below.

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 Cont…
 If the specimen has been completely demagnetized and the
magnetizing force H is increased in steps from zero, the relationship
between B and H is represented by the curve OAC which is the
normal magnetization curve.
 If the value of H is now decreased, the trace of B is higher than OC
and follows the curve CD until H is reduced to zero.
 Thus when H reaches zero, there is a residual flux density referred
to as remnant flux density denoted by Br.
 The magnetic field intensity OE required to wipe out the residual
magnetism Br is called coercive force.

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 Cont…
 As H is further increased in the negative direction, the
specimen becomes magnetized with the opposite polarity as
shown by the curve EF.
 If H is varied backwards from LO to OK, the flux density
curve follows a path FGC, which is similar to the curve CDEF.
 The closed loop CDEFGC thus traced out is called the
hysteresis loop of the specimen.
 The shape of the hysteresis loop will depend upon the nature
of magnetic material.

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 Cont…
Electromagnetic Induction
 When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field or when a
magnetic field is moved past a stationary wire there is a relative
motion between the wire and the magnetic field.
 This results an induced voltage, with magnitude depend on the rate
at which the wire and the magnetic field move with respect to each
other and the principle is known as electromagnetic induction.
 The faster the relative speed, the grater the induced voltage.
 The principle is widely applied in electrical circuits in the study and
operation of transformers, electrical motors and generators.

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 Cont…
Faraday's Laws
 Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic
induction in 1831.
 He found that moving a magnet through a coil of wire induced a
voltage across the complete path thus caused an induced current.
 Faraday’s observations are as follows:

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 Cont…
 For the figure above showing a coil connected to a galvanometer G,
when the magnet was kept inside the coil nothing happened as
shown in figure (a).
 But when the north pole of the magnet was inserted in the coil as
shown in figure (b), the galvanometer pointer was deflected
momentarily on one side and the direction of current was found to
be anticlockwise.
 When the magnet was withdrawn as shown in figure (c), the pointer
of the galvanometer deflects on the other side and the direction of
current was found to be clockwise.

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 Cont…
 Faraday summed up the results of the experiments described above
in the form of following two laws, known as Faraday's laws of
electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday's first law:- states that whenever the magnetic flux associated or
linked with a closed circuit is changed, or alternatively, when a conductor
cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in the circuit
resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so long as the
magnetic flux changes.
 Faraday's second law:- states that the magnitude of the induced emf
generated in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.

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 Cont…
Dynamically Vs Statically Induced emf
 Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of a
conductor in a magnetic field.
 But when the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux
linking with these conductors or coil undergo a change, an emf is
induced in the conductors.
 Such an induced emf is termed as statically induced emf.
 Statically induced emf can be further classified as:
 Self-induced emf and
 Mutual induced emf
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 Cont…
Self-induced emf
 Change of current is accompanied by the change of flux, and
therefore by an induced emf, is said to be inductive or to
possess self-inductance.
 Thus the property of the coil which enables to induce an emf
in it whenever the current changes is called self-induction.

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 Cont…
Mutually Induced emf
 The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by
changing the current in a neighboring circuit is called mutual
induction.
 Consider two coils P and S such that P is connected to a cell through
switch K and S to a galvanometer as shown in fig. below.
 When the switch K is closed suddenly to start current in the coil P,
the galvanometer gives a sudden "kick" in one direction and when K
is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflection but in the
opposite direction.
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 Cont…
 The above observations indicate clearly that an induced current is set up in
the coil S when the current is changed in the coil P, though the coil S is not
connected physically to coil P.
 Two coils possessing this property are said to have mutual inductance.
 Two coils are said to possess a mutual inductance of 1 henry when current
changing at the rate of l ampere per second in one coil induces an emf of 1
volt in the other.

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 Cont…
Magnetic core (iron) losses
 The magnetic flux within the armature of dc machines changes
direction as rotation occurs past the magnetic field poles.
 This change in direction of the armature magnetic flux is effectively an
alternating flux. This results in core losses consisting of hysteresis losses
and eddy-current losses. (Please refer boos for details)
Permanent Magnets
 Are commonly used as compasses and magnetic lifts.
 Magnetic clutches and brakes, loudspeakers and relays, as well as small
generators and motors use the application of permanent magnets.

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