Electromagnetic induction

• When the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f. is

induced in the conductor. If the conductor forms a complete loop or
circuit, a current will flow in it. This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.
• The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. and hence current in a
conductor or coil when the magnetic flux linking the conductor or
coil changes is called electromagnetic induction.
Flux Linkages
The product of the number of turns (N) of the coil and the
magnetic flux (φ) linking the coil is called flux linkages,

i.e. Flux linkages = N Ø

Experiments show that the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil

is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. If N
is the number of turns of the coil and the magnetic flux linking
the coil changes (say increases) from Ø1 to Ø2 in t seconds, then,
 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Laws are defined as,

First Law
• It tells us about the condition under which an e.m.f. is induced
in a conductor or coil and may be stated as under :
• When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes,
an e.m.f. is induced in it.
• It does not matter how the change in magnetic flux is brought
about. The essence of the first law is that the induced e.m.f.
appears in a circuit subjected to a changing magnetic field.
Second Law
• It gives the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a conductor or coil
and may be stated as under :
• The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages i.e.
 Direction of Induced E.M.F. and Current
The direction of induced e.m.f. and hence current (if the circuit is
closed ) can be determined by one of the following two methods :
(i) Lenz’s Law (ii) Fleming’s right-hand rule
(i) Lenz’s law. Emil Lenz, a German scientist, gave the following simple
rule (known as Lenz’s law) to find the direction of the induced current :
• The induced current will flow in such a direction so as to oppose
the cause that produces it i.e. the induced current will set up
magnetic flux to oppose the change in flux.
• Note that Lenz’s law is reflected mathematically in the minus sign
on the R.H.S. of Faraday’s second law viz.
e = − N dØ/dt.
• The negative sign simply reminds us that the induced current
opposes the changing magnetic field that caused the induced
current. The negative sign has no other meaning.
(ii) Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule. This law is particularly suitable to find
the direction of the induced e.m.f. and hence current when the
conductor moves at right angles to a stationary magnetic field. It may
be stated as under :
• Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your
right hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If
the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb
in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle
finger will point in the direction of induced current.
 Magnetic circuit
Magnetic Flux
• The number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field
determines the value of magnetic flux. The more the magnetic lines
of force, the greater the magnetic flux and the stronger the
magnetic field.
• The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a
magnetic source is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by Greek
letter Ø (phi).
• Unit is Weber.
Magnetic Flux Density (B)
The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux
passing normally per unit area i.e.
Magnetic flux density, B = Ø/A Wb/m2
where Ø = flux in Wb, A = area in m2
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H)
Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is
the force acting on a unit N-pole (i.e., N-pole of 1 Wb) placed at that
point. Clearly, the unit of H will be N/Wb.
Suppose it is desired to find the magnetic intensity at a point P
situated at a distance d metres from a pole of strength m webers.

Magnetic intensity at P, H = Force on unit N-pole placed at P

Absolute and Relative Permeability
• Permeability of a material means its conductivity for magnetic
flux. The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its
conductivity for magnetic flux and vice-versa.
• Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic flux. The
absolute (or actual) permeability μ0 (Greek letter “mu”) of air or
vacuum is 4π × 10−7 H/m.
• The absolute (or actual) permeability μ of magnetic materials is
much greater than μ0. The ratio μ/μ0 is called the relative
permeability of the material and is denoted by μr i.e.,
Relation Between B and H
• The flux density B produced in a material is directly proportional to
the applied magnetizing force H. In other words, the greater the
magnetizing force, the greater is the flux density and vice versa i.e.

• The ratio B/H in a material is always constant and is equal to the

absolute permeability μ (= μ0μr) of the material. This relation gives
yet another definition of absolute permeability of a material.
 Magnetic circuit
Magnetic Circuit
It may be defined as the route or path which is followed by magnetic
flux. The law of magnetic circuit are quite similar to (but not the same
as) those of the electric circuit.
Or
The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
• Consider a coil of N turns wound on an iron core as shown in
Figure. When current I is passed through the coil, magnetic flux φ is
set up in the core.
• The flux follows the closed path
ABCDA and hence ABCDA is the
magnetic circuit.
 Important terms in Magnetic field
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.)
It drives or tends to drive flux through a magnetic circuit and
corresponds to electromotive force (e.m.f.) in an electric circuit.
• The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once around the
magnetic circuit is called the magnetomotive force (m.m.f.).
• It is equal to the product of current and number of turns of the coil
i.e.
m.m.f. = N I Ampere-Turns (or AT)

Ampere-turns (AT). It is the unit of magnetomotive force (mmf) and is

given by the product of the number of turns of a magnetic circuit and
the current in amperes in those turns.
Reluctance. The opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to magnetic
flux is called reluctance. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit depends
upon its length l, area of X-section and permeability of the material
that makes up the magnetic circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb.

Reluctance in a magnetic circuit corresponds to resistance (R = ρ l/a) in

an electric circuit.

Permeance. It is the reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or

readiness with which magnetic flux is developed. It is analogous to
conductance in electric circuits. It is measured in terms of Wb/AT or
henry.

Reluctivity. The reciprocal of permeability μ(= μ0μr) corresponds to

resistivity ρ of the electrical circuit and is called reluctivity. It may be
noted that magnetic permeability (μ) is the analog of electrical
conductivity.
Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
 Analysis of Magnetic Circuit
• Consider the magnetic circuit shown in Figure. Suppose the mean length
of the magnetic circuit (i.e. length ABCDA) is l metres, cross-sectional area
of the core is ‘a’ m2 and relative permeability of core material is μr.
• When current I is passed through the coil, it will set up flux Ø in the
material.
According to work law, the work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once
around the magnetic circuit (i.e. path ABCDA in this case) is equal to the
ampere-turns enclosed by the magnetic circuit.

The quantity NI which produces the magnetic flux is called the

magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) and is measured in ampere-turns. The
quantity l/a μ0μr is called the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Reluctance is
the opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to magnetic flux.

Sometimes above equation is referred to as Ohm’s law of magnetic circuit.

Calculation of Ampere-Turns
 Series Magnetic Circuits
• In a series magnetic circuit, the same flux φ flows through each part of
the circuit. It can just be compared to a series electric circuit which carries
the same current throughout.
• Consider a composite (A series magnetic circuit that has parts of different
dimensions and materials) series magnetic circuit consisting of three
different magnetic materials of different relative permeabilities along with
an air gap as shown in Figure.
• Each part of this series magnetic circuit
will offer reluctance to the magnetic flux Ø.
• The reluctance offered by each part will
depend upon dimensions and μr of that part.
• Since the different parts of the circuit are in series, the total
reluctance is equal to the sum of reluctances of individual parts, i.e.
Hence the total ampere-turns required for a series magnetic
circuit can be found as under :
(i) Find H for each part of the series magnetic circuit. For air, H = B/μ0
whereas for magnetic material, H = B/μ0μr.
(ii) Find the mean length (l) of the magnetic path for each part of the
circuit.
(iii) Find AT required for each part of the magnetic circuit using the
relation, AT = H × l.
(iv) The total AT required for the entire series circuit is equal to the
sum of AT for various parts.
 Numerical Problem
Q1. An iron ring of cross sectional area 6 cm2 is wound with a
wire of 100 turns and has a saw cut of 2 mm. Calculate the
magnetizing current required to produce a flux of 0·1 mWb if
mean length of magnetic path is 30 cm and relative
permeability of iron is 470.
 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

• A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for flux is
called a parallel magnetic circuit.
• Here (in the figure) a coil of N turns wounded on limb AF
• carries a current of I amperes. The flux Ø1 set up by the coil
divides at B into two paths, namely ;
(i) flux Ø2 passes along the path BE
(ii) flux Ø3 follows the path BCDE
Clearly, Ø1 = Ø2 + Ø3
The magnetic paths BE and BCDE are in parallel and form a
parallel magnetic circuit. The AT required for this parallel circuit
is equal to AT required for any one of the paths.
Let , S1 = reluctance of path EFAB
S2 = reluctance of path BE
S3 = reluctance of path BCDE
Total m.m.f. required = m.m.f. for path EFAB + m.m.f. for path BE
or path BCDE

or NI = Ø1 S1 + Ø2 S2
= Ø1 S1 + Ø3 S3
 Numerical Problem
Q2. A cast steel magnetic structure made of a bar of section 2 cm
× 2 cm is shown in Figure. Determine the current that the 500
turn magnetizing coil on the left limb should carry so that a flux
of 2mWb is produced in the right limb. Take μr = 600 and neglect
leakage.
Q3. A magnetic circuit consists of three parts in series, each of
uniform cross-sectional area. They are :
(a) a length of 80 mm and cross-sectional area 50 mm2
(b) a length of 60 mm and cross-sectional area 90 mm2
(c) an air gap of length 0·5 mm and cross-sectional area 150
mm2.
A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b) and the flux density in
the air gap is 0·3 Wb/m2. Assuming that all the flux passes
through the given circuit, and that relative permeability μr is
1300, estimate the coil current to produce such a flux density.
 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing

• The flux that does not follow the desired path in a magnetic
circuit is called a leakage flux. Flux lines as at ‘a’ are called
leakage flux.
• In most of practical magnetic circuits, a large part of flux path
is through a magnetic material and the remainder part of flux
path is through air.
• The flux in the air gap is known as useful flux because it can be
utilised for various useful purposes.
• Magnetic leakage is undesirable in electrical machines
because it increases the weight as well as cost of the machine.
• Magnetic leakage can be greatly reduced by placing source of
m.m.f. close to the air gap.
• Fringing. When crossing an air gap, magnetic lines of force
tend to expand out such as lines of force at bb in Figure. It is
because lines of force repel each other when passing
through non-magnetic material such as air. This effect is
known as fringing.
• The result of expending or fringing is to increase the effective
area of air gap and thus decrease the flux density in the gap.
The longer the air gap, the greater is the fringing and vice-
versa.