Chapter V

Introduction to Steam Tables and Mollier Diagram

1. Definition
Steam is the vapour form of water and is invisible when pure and dry. It does not obey
the laws of perfect gases, until it is perfectly dry. When the dry steam is further heated, it
behaves more or less like a perfect gas. The steam is generally used as a working
substance in the operation of steam engines and steam turbines.

2. Formation of Steam
The formation of steam takes places, when we continuously heat the water from any
temperature in the following stages:

1. The volume of water slightly increases with the increase in temperature. But this
increase is generally neglected for all types of calculations.

2. On further heating, the temperature of water reaches the boiling point. The
boiling temperature of pure steam at normal atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar
(1.013 × 10 N/m or 1.013 × kN/m also known as 1.013 × 10 kPa) is 100°C (373
K). But it increases with the increase in pressure.

3. After boiling point, the temperature remains constant. But the water starts
evaporating and the volume of steam starts increasing. At this stage, the steam
has some water particles in suspension and it is called wet steam. This process
continues, till the whole water is converted into wet steam.

4. On further heating, the temperature of wet steam remains constant and all the
water particles in suspension are converted into steam. At this stage, the steam is
called dry saturated steam.

5. On further heating, the temperature of dry saturated steam starts increasing and it
obeys the laws of perfect gases. At this stage, the steam is called superheated
steam. As a matter fact, the superheated steam is used as a working substance in
the operation of steam engines and steam turbines.

3. Properties of steams
The followings properties of steam are always needed for the calculations of its various
parameters, which are required in the operation of steam engines and steam turbines.

1. Specific volume of steam. It is the volume occupied by the steam per unit mass at
a given temperature and pressure. It is expressed in m/kg and is the reciprocal of
the density of steam. The specific volume of steam increases with the increase in
temperature and decrease with the increase in pressure.

2. Specific enthalpy of steam. It is the total heat absorbed by the steam per unit mass
from the freezing point of water (0°C or 273 K) to the saturation temperature
(100°C or 373 K) plus the heat absorbed during evaporation. It is expressed in
kJ/kg. The specific enthalpy of steam increases with the increase in temperature
and pressure.
 3. Specific entropy of steam. It is a theoretical value of heat energy, which can not
be transformed into mechanical work under the given conditions of temperature
or pressure. It is also called degree of disordered of the system. The most
common term used is the change of entropy, which is mathematically given as:

∆Q Heat supplied
∆s = =
∆Τ temperatur e of the system

It is expressed in kJ/kg K. the specific entropy of steam decreases with an

increase in temperature and pressure.

4. Steam tables
The various properties of steam (such as specific enthalpy and entropy) of dry
saturated steam and superheated steam vary with the variations of temperature
and pressure. These values were carefully determined by observations and
calculation first in F.P.S. system and were made available in tabular form known
as steam tables. Later on, these values were converted in to M.K.S. units and then
in to S.I. units. Due to conversion and rounding of the figures, there is a slight
difference in the figures quoted in different books. Even some of the authors have
changed these values in different editions of the same books. However, in this
steam tables the other has quoted standard figures, which are widely accepted
and internationally recognized.

There are to important steam tables. One of them is based in terms of temperature
and the other in terms of pressure. It is a general practice to give the following
tables for some important values:

1) Saturated water and steam (temperature) table

2) Saturated water and steam (pressure) table
3) Superheated steam table
4) Supercritical steam table

5. Saturated water and steam (temperature) table

It contents values of absolute pressure (in bar), specific volume (in m3 /kg), specific enthalpy
(in kJ/kg) and specific entropy (in kJ/kg K) from 00C to 374.15 0 C (critical temperature). A
sample of this table is given below:

Temperature Absolute Specific volume in Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

in pressure m3/kg in kJ/kg in kJ/kg K
0
C in bar Water Steam Water Evaporat Steam Water Evaporati Steam
(t) (p) (vƒ ) (vg ) (hƒ ) ion (hƒg ) (hg ) (sƒ ) on (sƒg) (sg )
0 0.006 11 0.001 000 206.16 0.0 2501.6 2501.6 0.000 9.158 9.158
5 0.008 72 0.001 000 147.16 21.0 2489.7 2510.7 0.07 8.951 9.027
10 0.012 27 0.001 000 106.43 42.0 2477.9 2519.9 0.151 8.751 8.902

The use of this table is given in the following example.

Example 1. Calculate the specific enthalpy and specific entropy of 1 kg of steam at 100 C
when its dryness fraction is 0.8.

Solution. Given: Mass of steam (m) = 1 kg; Temperature of steam (t) = 100 C and dryness fraction
of steam (x) = 0.8
From steam tables, corresponding to a temperature of 100 C, we find that
hƒ = 42.0 kJ/kg; hƒg = 2477.9 kJ/kg; sƒ = 0.151 kJ/kg K sƒg = 8.751 kJ/kg K.

Specific enthalpy of steam

We know that specific enthalpy of the steam,
h = m [hƒ + x hƒg ] = 1 × [42.0 + (0.8 × 2477.9)] = 2024 kJ Ans.

Specific entropy of the steam

We also known that specific entropy of the steam,
s = m [sƒ + x sƒg ] = 1 × [0.151 + (0.8 × 8.751)] = 7.1518 kJ/kg K Ans.

6. Saturated water and steam (pressure) tables

It contains the values of temperature (in 0 C), specific enthalpy (in kJ/kg) and specific entropy
(in kJ/kg K) from 0.0061 bar (critical pressure). A sample of this table is given below:

Absolute Tempera Specific volume in Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

pressure ture in m3/kg in kJ/kg in kJ/kg K
0
in bar C Water Steam Water Evaporat Steam Water Evaporati Steam
(p) (t) (vƒ ) (vg ) (hƒ ) ion (hƒg ) (hg ) (sƒ ) on (sƒg) (sg )
0.010 6.98 0.001 000 129.21 29.3 2485.0 2514.4 0.106 8.871 8.977
0.020 17.51 0.001 000 67.012 73.5 2460.2 2533.6 0.261 8.464 8.725
0.030 24.10 0.001 000 45.670 101.0 2444.6 2545.6 0.354 8.224 8.578

The use of this table is given in the following example.

Example. What is the specific enthalpy and specific entropy of 1.5 kg of steam at a pressure
of 0.030 bar, when its dryness fraction is 0.6?

Solution. Given: Mass of steam (m) = 1.5 kg; pressure of steam (p) = 0.030 bar and dryness
fraction of steam (x) = 0.6

From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 0.030 bar, we find that

hƒ =101 kJ/kg; hƒg = 2444.6 kJ/kg; sƒ = 0.354 kJ/kg K and sƒg = 8.224 kJ/kg K.

Specific enthalpy of steam

We know that specific enthalpy of the steam,
h = m [hƒ + x hƒg ] = 1 × [101 + (0.6 × 2444.6)] = 1567.76 kJ Ans.

Specific entropy of the steam

We also known that specific entropy of the steam,
s = m [sƒ + x sƒg ] = 1.5 × [0.354 + (0.6 × 8.224)] = 7.9326 kJ/kg K Ans.

7. Superheated steam tables

These tables contain values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and entropy of
superheated steam from an absolute pressure of 0.02 bar (critical pressure) at
various temperatures from 1000 C to 8000C. in these tables, the value of specific
volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy of steam are directly read from
the concerned tables. However, the value at any other pressure or temperature,
not mentioned in the tables, is obtained by interpolation.

8. Supercritical steam tables

These tables also contain the values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and
specific entropy of super critical steam from an absolute pressure of 250 bar to
1000 bar at various temperatures from 4000 C to 8000 C. In these tables also, the
values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy of steam are
directly read from the concerned tables. However, the value at any other pressure
or temperature, not mentioned in the table, is obtained by interpolation.

9. Mollier diagram
It is a graphical representation of steam tables, in which specific entropy is
plotted along the coordinate (X-axis) and specific enthalpy along the abscissa (Y-
axis). The diagram is divided into two portions by a somewhat horizontal line
termed as saturation curve. The lower portion (i.e., wet steam region) contains
the values of wet steam, whereas the upper portion (i.e., superheated steam
region) contains the values of superheated steam. A Mollier diagram has the
following lines.

1. Dryness fraction line

2. Constant specific volume lines
3. Constant pressure lines
4. Constant temperature lines

10. Dryness fraction lines

These lines are drawn in the wet steam region. i.e., only below the saturation
curve (which represent dryness fraction equal to unity). These lines represent the
condition of wet steam between various values of enthalpy and entropy. The
dryness fraction lines are slightly curve in horizontal direction.

11. Constant specific volume lines

These lines are drawn in both the wet steam region and superheated steam region.
These lines represent the specific volume of steam between the various values of
enthalpy and entropy. The lines are straight in the wet steam region, i.e., below
the saturation curve, but are curved upward in the superheated region i.e., above
the saturation curve.

12. Constant pressure lines

These lines are also drawn in both the wet steam region and superheated steam
region. These lines represent the pressure of steam between various values of
enthalpy and entropy. The pressure lines are also straight in the wet steam region,
i.e., below the saturation curve, but are curved slightly upwards in the
superheated region i.e., above the saturation curve.

13. Constant temperature lines

These lines are drawn only in the superheated steam region i.e. above the
solution curve. These lines represent the temperature of steam between various
values of enthalpy and entropy. The temperature lines are slightly curved in the
horizontal direction.
Piping for Steam Distribution

Application of Steam.

In large size plants steam is used for one or more of applications such as
power generation ( steam turbine), process heating in vacuum device
(steam ejector).

Typical steam distribution system

A typical steam distribution system consists of

1) Boiler where steam is generated .

2) Steam using equipments such as turbine , evaporator, reaction

versel, ejector etc.

3) Interconnecting piping .

4) Pressure reducing station (PRS) with desuperheater (PRDS) or

without desuperheater.

5) Condensate return piping system with or without flash steam

recovery system.

Out of above, items (iv) and (v) are seen when steam is used for process
Heating or space heating applications.

For process or space heating options other steam are available viz . Water
(Sometimes at high pressure) and thermic fluids (including high
temperature oils).

Annexure I contains following in relation to foregoing:

- Why use steam.

- Comparison of steam with water and high temperature oils.

- Steam utilization

- Schematic diagram for a typical PRS.

Line size for steam pipe

The line size for steam distribution is, an in other cases , decided by the steam
flow rate and permissible pressure drop.

However in case of steam piping a few other considerations need to considered

such as

- quality of steam ( dry saturated / wet exhaust / s uperheated )

- whether main supply line (often referred to steam header ) or branch line
(Pipeline form steam header to user equipment )

The following pages contain discussion on following

- Unwin equation for calculation of pressure drop for steam service.

- Nomograph for finding equivalent length of fittings
Discussion on economic velocity .
- Discussion on consideration applicable for sizing of steam mains
(headers) and branch lines.
- Recommended practices for laying of pipelines carrying saturated
steam.
- Table giving steam carrying capacity of steam pipes of different
sizes.

Annexure 2 – gives details regarding another method used for determining line
size for steam service. This method is based on use of concept of
Pressure Factors.

Notes:
Additional observations related to contents of following pages are given as below
in the form of notes.

1) Unwin eqn. using metric units

W 2 v  91.44 
P(in bar /100 m ) = 674 .36 1+
d 5  d 

W - Kg / hr
d - mm
v - Kg /m3

2) Equivalent length of fitting

The nomograph given is in British units. Some Approximations can be seen as
below.
 Fitting Equipment length in m
( d-pipe NB inmm )
Gate valve –full open 0.01
Globe valve-full open 0.35
Long radius bend 0.03
Tee connection 0.07

Equations for pressure drop based on rigorous mathematics are available for
isothermal as well as adiabatic flow conditions. However certain empirical
equations based theoretical consideration have proved adequate for the
practical purpose.

For steam applications equation widely used is Unwin equation :

W 2 v  3.6 
Dp in psi / 100ft = 0.01307 × 1+ ……………. (2)
d 5  d 

W = steam flow in lbs/min v = sp. vol. in cub ft /lb

d = pipe ID in inches

For converting the answer to metric units :

Kg / Cm 2
1 psi / 100 ft = 0.226 bar / 100 m = 0.22
100m

Various units of Pressure measurement

1 atm - 1.033 Kg / cm2 = 1.013 bar = 14.7 psi

- 1.02 Kg / cm2 = 1 bar = 14.5 psi

- 1 Kg / cm2 = 0.981 bar = 14.23 psi

Pressure drop through fittings such as bend, reducer ,valve etc.

Fluid suffers pressure drop as it passes through fittings.
The resistance offered by fitting can be correlated to length of straight pipe
Offering same resistance in terms of pressure drop.

Such length of straight pipe is designated as equivalent length of the fitting.

For any segment of pipeline total equivalent length ( le in equation 1)

is total of length of straight pipe plus equivalent length of all fittings.
A Nomograph for equivalent length of fittings is given.

RESISTANCE OF VALVES AND FITTINGS TO FLOW OF FLUIDS

Economic Velocity for deciding line size.
For given mass / volume flow rate of steam, increasing pipe dia. (ID) would
reduce the velocity would mean less pressure drop. However higher pipe size
would mean higher initial cost of piping.

The effect of change in pipe size could be seen as below :

Pipe size (ID) Velocity Pressure drop Heat- loss

higher Lower more
lower Higher higher less

A compromise has to be reached between these opposing factors of initial cost,

pressure drop and heat loss. Velocity of steam which offers optimum solution is
referred to as economic velocity.

For stdam service the recommended velocities are :

Exhaust wet steam 15 - 25 m /s

Dry saturated steam 25 - 35 m/s
Superheated steam 35 - 45 m/s

At these velocities the pressure drop would be about 1 psi /100 ft or about
0.2 bar / 100 m.
1

 m × SPV 
2
EV
m = 0.002827 × d ×2
or d = 18.807  
SPV  EV 

Where -
m - mass flow rate of steam in Kg / hr
EV - economic velocity m/s
SPV - specific volume cub m/Kg
d - pipe dia ( ID) in mm

For purpose of deciding pipe sizes for steam service, the steam pipe –lines could
be broadly grouped into two categories vix. steam main and branch lines.

Steam mains are large size line spanning considerable distance. They have to
deliver steam of required quantity to various steam using devices. The pressure
drop is therefore important consideration . The design procedure therefore
involves selecting steam velocity closest to if not within economic range which
gives pressure drop within permissible limit .

Branch lines are much shorter in length. The pressure drop therefore is not of
substantial magnitude. He branch lines are therefore sized on the Basis of
velocity of 25 - 35 m/s .
 Table 1 gives pipe line capacities for different pipe dia. at specific velocities.

TABLE 2 STEAM PIPE SIZING ( Carrying Capacity in Kg/h)

Pressure Velocity 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300

Bar m/s mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.4 15 7 14 24 37 52 99 145 213 394 648 917 1606 2590 3678
25 10 25 40 62 92 162 265 384 675 972 1457 2806 4101 5938
40 17 35 64 102 142 265 403 576 1037 1670 2303 4318 6909 9500
0.7 15 7 16 25 40 59 109 166 250 431 680 1006 1708 27911 3852
25 12 25 45 72 100 182 287 430 716 1145 1575 2816 4629 6204
40 18 37 68 106 167 298 428 630 1108 1712 2417 4532 7251 10323
1.0 15 8 17 29 43 65 112 182 260 470 694 1020 1864 2814 4045
25 12 26 48 72 100 193 300 445 730 1160 1660 3099 4869 6751
40 19 39 71 112 172 311 465 640 1150 1800 2500 4815 7333 10370
2.0 15 12 25 45 70 100 182 280 410 715 1125 1580 2814 4545 6277
25 19 43 70 112 162 295 428 656 1215 1755 2520 4815 7425 10575
40 30 64 115 178 275 475 745 1010 1895 2925 4175 7678 11997 16796
3.0 15 16 37 60 93 127 245 385 535 925 1505 2040 3983 6217 8743
25 26 56 100 152 225 425 632 910 1580 2480 3440 6779 10269 14316
40 41 87 157 250 375 595 1025 1460 2540 4050 5940 10476 16470 22950
4.0 15 19 42 70 108 156 281 432 635 1166 1685 2460 4618 7121 10358
25 30 63 115 180 270 450 742 1080 1980 2925 4225 7866 12225 17304
40 49 116 197 295 456 796 1247 1825 3120 4940 7050 12661 19663 27816
5.0 15 22 49 87 128 187 352 526 770 1295 2105 2835 5548 8586 11947
25 36 81 135 211 308 548 885 1265 2110 3540 5150 8865 14268 20051
40 59 131 225 338 495 855 1350 1890 3510 5400 7870 13761 23205 32244
6.0 15 26 59 105 153 225 425 632 925 1555 2525 3400 6654 10297 14328
25 43 97 162 253 370 658 1065 1520 2530 4250 6175 10629 17108 24042
40 71 157 270 405 595 1025 1620 2270 4210 6475 9445 16515 27849 38697
7.0 15 29 63 110 165 260 445 705 952 1815 2765 3990 7390 12015 16096
25 49 114 190 288 450 785 1205 1750 3025 4815 6900 12288 19377 27080
40 76 177 303 455 690 1210 1865 2520 4585 7560 10880 19141 30978 43470
8.0 15 32 70 126 190 285 475 800 1125 1990 3025 4540 8042 12625 17728
25 54 122 205 320 465 810 1260 1870 3240 5220 7120 13140 21600 33210
40 84 192 327 510 730 1370 2065 3120 5135 8395 12470 21247 33669 46858
10.0 15 41 95 155 250 372 626 1012 1465 2495 3995 5860 994 16172 22713
25 66 142 257 405 562 990 1530 2205 3825 6295 8995 15966 25860 35890
40 104 216 408 615 910 1635 2545 3600 6230 9880 14390 26621 41011 57560
14.0 15 50 121 205 310 465 810 1270 1870 3220 5215 7390 12921 20538 29016
25 85 195 331 520 740 1375 2080 3120 5200 8500 12560 21720 34139 47218
40 126 305 555 825 1210 2195 3425 4735 8510 13050 18630 35548 54883 76534
STEAM
Why use steam?
In oil and chemical plants of all types and sizes, energy is used for process
heating. It may also be used for space heating and for power, generating
electricity and driving pumps and compressors.

Process applications include product heating in stills, evaporators, Feed heaters,

reboilers, reaction vessels and dyers . Maintenance of product temperature is
often required in storage tanks, tracer lines jacketed pipes and valves.

Although steam is the traditional means of conveying heat, there are now a
number of alternatives. Theses include high or medium pressure hot water and
heat transfer oils. In some cases it is more convenient to use electricity,
especially for tracing and for the mechanical agitation for storage tanks.

Table 1 compares in abbreviated form the various fluid systems and the following
comments relate these to the oil and chemical industries.

STEAM

Particularly in the large complex, steam remains an obvious choice for heating.
Where electric power is generated, exhaust steam is an essential component of
the overall heat balance. It is use directly as a constituent in many chemical
reactions and it provides, though waste heat boiler ,an obvious way of recovering
heat from may exothermic reactions. In many refineries, primary steam is in any
case obtained by burning waste products in the boiler and its cost is therefore
low.

Steam is usually generated in a central boiler use and distributed around the site
, often at a number of different pressures, by a network of steam mains which
play a vital part in the efficient running of the plant.

It has the advantage that it can be used for power and heating but it main virtue
is its flexibility. Steam pipes are relatively small per unit of heat carried and
additions or alterations can readily be made to any system since they are being
limited only the maximum capacity of the mains. Though many chemical plants
may have a limited life of say five years their overall cost will be reduced if they
are applied from steam services put in on a much more permanent basis.

Another great virtue of steam is the case with which it can be regulated to give
varying heat levels through reducing valves or to give temperature
control through simple 2 way valves.

WATER SYSTEMS
These find only limited application in the chemical industry but they are used
particularly where the high temperatures associated with steam will damage the
product. They involve relatively large pipes and large heating surfaces. Any but
the simplest such system will also require careful balancing to ensure an
adequate flow to all users.

HIGH TEMPERATURES OILS

The oil and chemical industries were among the first to utilize high temperature
fluids as heat transfer media. These are extremely useful where high process
temperatures are required , but where the high pressure associated with steam
would cause difficulties.

Most of these fluids are very expensive , but recently hydrocarbon oils have
provided a more viable answer. Costs are still high, although less significant if (
as is often the case) the company concerned is involved in the production of a
suitable heat transfer fluid. Hydrocarbon oils are used increasingly for the
medium range temperatures associated for example with bitumen plants.
However , the inflexible nature of high temperature oil system suggest that it will
be some time before they can be considered as a complete alternative to steam.

ELECTRIC HEATING
Whether electricity is generated or purchased from the national grid, electric
heating is almost invariably more expensive than other forms of heating . It is
therefore rarely used other forms of heating . It is therefore rarely used for build
heating but can sometimes be usefully employed on the heat loads associated
with tracing. Electric tracing is useful for overcoming cold start up conditions
before steam is available or perhaps at remote points where there is not steam
service.

On the other hand , an electric supply system is frequently less flexible than a
steam system . Although the odd tapping from a steam system can usually be
tolerated to provide steam tracing, the random use of electric tracing can soon
produce overloading of supply cables and switchgear, and produce
unsatisfactory load factors. Electric heating is often avoided on sites where fire or
explosion risks call for special flame-proofing.

MECHANICAL AGITATION

From time to time steam heating coils are used in storage tanks, not to maintain
temperature , but simply to provide convection currents and thereby avoid the
settling out of various fractions. As an alternative, mechanical agitators or stirrers
powered by electric motors, are sometimes used.
It is difficult to generalize here, since so much will depend on the proximity of
steam services and the cost of the steam itself. Inevitably , the electric motors
used on large tanks are sizeable and many of the comments made on electric
heating will therefore apply.

TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF STEAM HIGH TEMP ERATURE HOT WATER AND HIGH
TEMPERATURE OIL SYSTEMS

SR.No. STEAM HOT WATER HIGH

TEMPERATURE
OILS
1 High heat content. Moderate heat Poor heat content
Latent heat approximately content. Specific heat often
2100 kJ / kg 900 Btu / b Specific heat – 1.69 – 2.93
4.19 kJ/ kg0C kJ/ kg0C
1 Btu/lb 0F 0.4 -0.7 Btu/lb 0F
2 Cheap but some water Cheap .Only Expensive
treatment cost occasional dosing
3 Good heat transfer Moderate heat Relatively poor heat
coefficients transfer coefficients transfer coefficients
4 High pressure required for High pressure Low pressures only
high temperatures required to get high
temperatures
5 No circulating pump Circulating pump Circulating pump
required required required
6 Small pipes Large pipes Large pipes
7 Easy to control with 2-way Less easy – 3 way Less easy – 3 way
valves valves or differential valves or differential
pressure valves pressure valves may
may be required. be required.
8 Temperature breakdown Temperature Temperature
easy through reducing valve breakdown less breakdown less
easy. easy.
9 Steam traps required No steams traps No steams traps
10 Condensate to be handled No condensate No condensate
handlings handlings
11 Flash problems No flash problems No flash problems
12 Blow down loss No blow down loss No blow down loss
13 Corrosion problems Less corrosion Negligible corrosion
14 Reasonable pipe-work Searching medium, Very searching
required welded or flanged medium, welded or
joints usual flanged joints usual
15 No fire risk No fire risk Fire risk
16 System flexible System less flexible System inflexible

STEAM UTILISATION IN THE LARGE COMPLEX

In a refinery chemical complex there is a large demand for electrical power.

Invariably this is met, at least in part, by generating electricity on site utilizing
turbines fed by superheated steam from a central boiler plant.

Because of this requirement for superheated steam, there is a strong tendency

to distribute and utilize it for process steam as well . Certainly there is an
advantage in distributing steam with some degree of superheat, in order to
ensure that it arrives at the process plant as truly dry saturated steam, but to use
superheated steam in the plant itself can often be a disadvantage.

Saturated steam will condense rapidly on any surface which is at lower

Temperature, giving up a large proportion of its total heat content. The very great
change in volume on condensation encourages the flow of steam towards the
heat exchange surfaces and enables-high heat transfer rates to be maintained.
On the other hand with superheated steam the flow of heat from the core of the
steam to the heat transfer surface is by conduction only , and is much slower.

The dry gas acts in part as insulating film, resisting the flow of heat instead of
encouraging it.

The rate at which we can get energy to flow from superheated steam is then ,
often less than can be achieved with saturated steam.

STEAM QUALITY
In discussing the use of superheated steam in a large complex, we made the
point that for most process applications what was required was dry saturated
steam.

At first sight , then, it would appear that such an ideal condition could be
achieved by distributing the steam from the boiler house, with just sufficient
superheat to cater for mains losses, so that the steam arrived at the point of
usage having lost its superheat, but in a dry state.

In practice however, such a condition is difficult to achieve. Variations in lengths

of travel and ambient air conditions make it impossible to reach the extract ideal
of having dry saturated steam at each and every point of usage all the time.
Steam quality will, therefore, vary around the complex.

This can even be the case where very high-pressure high temperature
superheated steam is being used.
Normally on the start-up of such a system, the superheated steam enters the
cold steam pipe work and gives up its superheat until at the saturated steam
temperature it condenses rapidly. For such start-up conditions it is conventional
practice to blow down the steam main through valves so that this condensate is
removed. As the steam main comes up to the final working pressure and
temperature, these values are closed as one would then normally not expect any
condensate to be present.

However, depending upon the superheat temperature, the length of travel Of the
steam main, the quality of insulation, weather conditions and the quantity of
steam flowing, it is possible under certain conditions for the steam to give up its
superheat and begin to condense. Provision, therefore must be made at these
remote points for draining out such condensate automatically using a steam trap.
This is absolutely essential on those batch process application where for short
periods there is not steam demand and hence no flow of steam down the pipe.
Under such circumstance operators should not be relied upon for opening and
closing drain valves.

Steam at the point of usage, therefore, is seldom dry and not always saturated
and nowhere is this more true than when considering a chemical plant which is
using a boiler to supply “ saturated “ steam for process use.

Here, steam is being generated within a boiler and of course it is in contact with
water. Further it leaves the water through a surface which is turbulent, throwing
up droplets of water into the steam space and producing wet steam. How wet will
depend also on such other factors as the level of water below the off-take. The
pressure on the surface of water, the solids content of the water and the effect of
peak loads.

Any of those things, singly or in combination, can make it possible for droplets of
water to be carried over with the steam into the distribution system. These
droplets, entrained with the steam, carry no latent heat and as they add to the
thickness of the resistant film of water on the heat exchanger surface , they slow
down the rate of heat transfer.

The problem then is how to improve steam quality by removing these moisture
particles. This can be achieved quite simply by installing into the pipe line a
steam dryer or separator as shown in figure this incorporated a baffle plate or
plates.
Any moisture particles carried along with the steam will impinge on a plate where
they will drain to the bottom of the unit leaving the dry steam to pass on to the
processing plant.

The water thus separated out is finally drained off by means of a steam trap.

It is a good thing to fit separator on the branch line to every steam user thus
ensuring a dry steam supply.

But just not well do these separators perform? Claims are sometimes made
about the efficiency of separators. A generally high figure may be Quoted
suggesting that almost all free water is removed such figures are misleading on
two counts.

First, the performance of the separator varies with the conditions. Total moisture
content, droplets size and particularly steam velocity will all have bearing any
results.

Second the measurement of results which is the main stumbling block. Although
calorimeters are available to give a measurement of dryness Fraction, it is almost
impossible to take representative sample from the steam pipe either upstream or
downstream of a separator. Steam at the centre of a pipe will travel at the highest
velocity and will be relatively free of water droplets. Towards the pipe wall the
velocity will be lower . This part of the steam flow will carry more moisture while
the pipe wall may be covered by a film of water being dragged along at some
lower velocity. Results will depend on the point from which any sample is taken.
It is, therefore, impossible to get any meaningful before and after figures on
which to base any claim for separator efficiency.

What we do know from past experience is that for all average installations,
particularly those with wide variations in conditions, the baffle plate typ e of
separator, as shown in Fig.1 does provide a positive answer to better plant
performance by supplying steam using equipment with high quality dry steam.

Moisture, either being carried along in the steam flow or present as a film of
condensate on the walls of steam pipe work, is not the only factor affecting
steam quality. There is also the question of air and incondensable gases.

Consider a plant which has been shut down for a period of time. The steam
trapped in the pipe will have long since condensed and its place taken by air
drawn in through flanged joints, unions, valve glands, etc. When the time then
comes to re-start the plant, this air has first to be pushed out of the pipe work by
the incoming steam acting like a piston.

The adequacy of provision for discharging this air will govern almost entirely the
speed at which the distribution of steam to the using points can be completed.

In some plants which are in continuous operation this only applies once a year
when the plant is restarted after annual shutdown. But in many plants this start-
up condition can happen every morning, or at least every Monday morning after
a weekend shut down.

If, because of lack of provision for air venting fifty plant operators are standing by
for as little as half an hour waiting for their plant to warm up, then twenty-five
valuable man hours are lost to production.

What is more, in such cases the operator will invariably open the steam inlet
valve to his plant during this period. Air which is being pushed alo ng the steam
mains is now passed into the steam spaces of the plant, thus compounding the
whole problem.

So, particularly in those cases where steam distribute systems are shut down at
frequent intervals, adequate provisions for air venting on start up is a must.

Coupled with the presence of air can also be other incondensable gases which
enter the steam system, specially from decomposition of carbonate and
bicarbonate ions from salts in the boiler feed water. These ions release carbon
dioxide within the boiler, and this gas as well as the oxygen and nitrogen are
carried by the steam into the distribution system.

Even where desecrators are in use, very small amounts of gases remain in
solution in the feed water and over moderate periods of use will accumulate in
the steam lines and in the heat exchangers. Only when the partial pressure of the
gases has built up to a sufficiently high level will they dissolve in the condensate.

When this does happen, corrosion problems usually follow swiftly, but in
the meantime the gases have been forming an insulating barrier between the
steam and the heat exchanger surfaces, reducing the plant output.

Note that even if the appropriate chemicals are added to the boiler feed water to
deal with oxygen and carbon dioxide, the nitrogen dissolved in the water is
usually ignored. Automatic air vents are the simple way of dealing with these
problems.

SELECTION OF STEAM PRESURES

Before we can proceed with the design of the steam distribution system,
We must first of all consider the question, what steam pressures should be
using? The fundamentals for the selection are well known.

Steam should be distributed at high pressure because it occupies less space and
this in turn means that smaller, less costly mains can be used. The capital cost of
distributing steam at low pressure around a large site would be prohibitive. In
addition, the smaller mains have less heat-losing surface and better quality
steam is likely to result.

For process or space heating purposes steam should be used at the lowest
possible pressure. Low pressure steam offers the maximum amount of latent
heat per pound and the problems of flash steam from the condensate are reduce.
This means less back pressure in condensate systems and less wasteful and
unsightly vapour at collecting tanks or from trans discharging to atmosphere. This
vapour can also be dangerous if it reduces visibility or freezes in cold weather.

But there are factors that limit how far pressure can be reduced. The amount of
heating surface in the plant will usually determine how low the pressure can be
before the corresponding reduction in temperature head adversely affects
outputs.

Again, some products must be processed at a particular temperature and this will
call for a certain steam temperature and, therefore, pressure.
The choice of pressure is a compromise and can only be decided in the light of
all the factors.

It follows that there will be occasions when the steam pressure required in the
distribution system. In these cases a reducing valve must be used to break down
the pressure from a high pressure main and a good quality valve should be
chosen which will provide a consistent supply of steam, regardless of load
changes.

A reducing valve of the self-contained relay type is more than adequate for many
applications, but it is to provide accurate control.
Figure 2 shows the correct installation of a Spirax Sarco reducing valve. It is
important to supply the valve affect the accuracy of control and also cause
wiredrawing of the valve and seat. Contrary to a commonly held belief, the use of
a reducing valve will not normally convert wet steam into a superheated condition
but will simply dry out some of the entrained water and give drier and, therefore,
better steam reaching the reducing valve, the better chance there is of good
quality steam on the down steam side.

Annexure - 2

This annexure contains details of procedure for determining line size for steam
using pressure factor procedure.

The summary of procedure is given as below.

1) Select upstream pressure P1 and downstream pressured P2 i.e.

? P = P1 - P2
2) Determine total equivalent length L in meters,
3) Refer table 3 to know pressure factors for selected pressures P1 and
P2.
4) Calculate P1 - P2
F= , Fis called pressure drop factor
L

5) Now refer Table 4 with value of F calculated . For every value of F two
values x and y are seen for every pipe size, where in

x – Steam carrying capacity in Kg / h

y - Velocity factor, which is velocity in m/s with specific
volume of 1 m / mg .
6) Select that pipe size which gives capacity equals to or more than
required c apacity . E.g.

Pressure Factor Line Size

25 mm 40 mm 50 mm

0.04 x (kg/hr) 93.17 279.5 600.7

Y 52.72 68.46 84.98

If required capacity is 100 jg /hr , select 40 mm ( and not 25 mm) . If 25

mm is s elected for 100 Kg / hr , the pressure drop will be more than
permissible.

7) Then calculate true velocity

True velocity = velocity factor (y) x actual sp. Vol. In m3 /Kg
( actual sp. Vol. at upstream pressure – P1 )

This Annexure 2 also contains chart ( Table 5 ) which can be used for sizing for
superheated steam and large . Steam mains. Method of using this chart is
described under the heading “Pipe sizing for superheated and larger steams
mains. “
SIZING THE PIPE WORK

Having selected the pressure of steam that we requite for any particular process,
we must then determine the right size of pipe for the amount of steam it has to
carry. If it is too small , then high pressure drop and steam starvation at the using
end will result. If it is too large, then whilst this is in no way detrimental to the
operation of the plant , the capital cost of installation will be unnecessarily high ,
as will also be the running costs due to waste by radiation loss.

1. SIZING PIPES TO CARRY DRY SATURATED STEAM

There are two methods of sizing pipes, both of which have an .

known factor which must be assumed.

1) Velocity
2) Pressure drop

If we assume a velocity, then out calculations are based on the specific volume
of the steam being carried, in relation to the cross sectional area of the pipe.

Practical experience shows that reasonable velocities for dry saturated steam
mains are 25 - 35 m/s (80 - 120 ft /sec). But these should be regarded as
maxima above which noise and erosion will take place, particularly if the steam is
wet.

Even these velocities can be high in terms of resultant pressure drop. In long
supply lines, it is often necessary to restrict velocities to 15 m/s (50 ft/sec) if high
pressure drops are to be a voided.

Table 2 gives a quick reference guide to pipe sizing determined by velocity and in
most cases can be used to size short branch connections from the steam main to
individual pieces of process plant.

There is also the problem that sizing on velocity takes no account of length of
travel and , therefore , can produce a very uneven pressure drop over a network
of pipes, the further the travel the lower will be the available pressure at the point
of usage.

We know that in the using equipment , the temperature of heating medium can
be important. We know also that so far as saturated steam is concerned,
pressure and temperature are closely related. So in our endeavours to match
these two together, we are more likely to be successful if we size the pipes on
the pressure drop method which produces a known rather than unknown
pressure at any given point.
Let us explain how this can be done.

There are numerous monograms, graphs, tables and even slide rules available
for relating pipe size to pressure drop. One method which has been proved over
many years of satisfactory use, is to be found in Tables 3 and 4 which are based
on a formula simplified to :

P1 - P2
= F
L

Where
P1 is a factor based on the initial pressure
P2 is factor based on the finial pressure
L is the length of travel with an allowance for valve and fittings
F is the pressure drop factor.

The factors P1 and P2 can be determined from Table 3 while Table 4

Shows how the calculated pressure drop can be used to determine the carrying
capacity of various sizes of pipe.

WORKED EXAMPLES COVERING PIPE SIZING ( SI Units )

Example 1

Supposed the initial pressure is 7 bar then the pressure factor (P1) will be seen
from Table 3 to be 56.38 and if the final pressure at the end of the pipe is 6.4 bar,
then the pressure factor (P 2) is 48.48.

Assume the length of pipe (inclusive of allowances for bends and fittings) is 263
meters then :

P1 - P2 56.38 - 48.48
= F = = 0.030
L 263

From Table 4 we can see that following down the left had column to 0.030 Then
reading to the right , the 65 mm ( 2 ½”) pipe will carry 919.4 kg steam (x) with a
velocity factor ( y) of 80.64 m/s.

This velocity factor is based on steam volume of 1 m3 /kg and can, therefore, be
readily converted to give true velocity for other specific volumes :-

True Velocity x 1
y =
 Actual Volume

Therefore , if the velocity factor (y) = 80.64 m/s and the steam pressure is 7 bar,
with volume of 0.240 m3 /kg (see steam table ) , we can by substitution arrive at
the true velocity as follow :

True Velocity
80.64 =
0.24

True Velocity = 80.64 x 0.24

= 19.35 m/s

EXAMPLE 2

Let us take a practical example using Tablets 3 and 4 to determine the size of
the main in Fig . 3a.

The length of travel from the boiler to the heater battery is know, but we must
allow for the frictional resistance of the fittings in equivalent pipe length .
If we knew the size of main, the size is not yet known, an addition to equivalent
length is made based on experience.

If the line is over say, 100 m long and a fairly straight run, then the proportional
allowance for fittings would be 10%.

A similar straight run, but a shorter length of travel would rate an allowance more
in the region of 20% .

One further allowance has to be made and than is for heat losses from the main.

The heat battery requires 270 kg /h of steam : therefore , the main must carry
this quantity plus the quantity of steam condensed by heat losses from the
main. The size of the main is yet to be determined so the true calculations
cannot be made but, assuming that the main is insulated it would be
reasonable to allow 1% per 30 m travel for these heat losses i.e 3.4 %
per 100 m. The pipe must be able to carry 270 + 15 = 285 kg /h.

From Table 3
P1 at 7.0 bar = 56.38
P2 at 6.6 bar = 51.05
Length L = 165 m

Therefore :
P1 - P2 56.38 - 51.05
F= = = 0.0323
L 165

Follow down the left-hand column of Table 4 and it will be found that the two
nearest readings around out requirement of 0.0323 and 0.040.

0.040 Implies a pressure drop to final pressure lower than 6.6 bar and, therefore.
We should choose the next lower factor nearest to out requirement, in this case
0.030.

Alternatively, readings can be interpolated with reasonable accuracy, although as

Table 4 does not conform to a straight line graph, interpolation cannot be
absolutely correct.

From ,0.030 follow the line (x) and it will be seen that a 40 mm ( 1 ½ ) pipe will
carry only 229.9 kg of steam per hour and a 50 mm (2”) pipe 501.0 kg /h .

Obviously, therefore the steam main must be of 50 mm ( 2”) bore.

Let us check on velocity.
We have already explained that the figures in the line (y) represent a velocity
factor based on a steam volume of 1 m3 / kg .

Fig.3a shows 285 kg /h of steam passing through a 50 mm (2”) pipe. Referring

to Table 4 and scanning the 50 mm (2”) pipe column , it will be seen that where
this quantity of steam is being carried, the velocity factor (y) by interpolation is
approximately 40.

Steam at 7 bar has volume as shown in Table 2 of 0.24 m3 /kg so the true
velocity of the Fig .3a system using a 50 mm (2”) pipe is :-

True Velocity x 1
y =
Actual Volume

True Velocity
40 =
Actual Volume

True Velocity = 9.6 m/s

It may be thought that this velocity is low in comparison with maximum permitted
velocities , but it must be remembered that the steam main has been sized to
limit pressure drop whereas maximum permitted velocities are usually
accompanied by high pressure drops.

Let us see for example what the results would have been had we determined
the size of this main based on a velocity of 21 m/s.

True Velocity x 1
y =
Actual Volume

So for a velocity fro 21 m/s and with steam at 7 bar which has a volume of 0.24
m3 /kg .

21 x 1
y = = 87.5
0.24
We can now scan Table 4 to find a condition where 285 Kg of steam can be
handled with a velocity factor of 87.5 .

This , it will seen , is in the 40 mm (1½ “ ) pipe column opposite factor F of

0.08.

But what would be the result if a 40 mm (1½ “ ) pipe had been used ? In this
case we know that F = 0.08 P1 and I are unchanged so from the formula :-

P1 - P2
=F
L

We can establish that

56.38 - P2
= 0.08
165

Therefore , P 2 = 43.18 which from Table 3 is equivalent to a pressure of just

below 6 bar.

So had the pipe line been installed as 40 mm (1½ “ ) size instead of 50 mm (2”)
the pressure at the heater battery would have been the design condition.

PIPE SIZING FOR SUPERHEATED AND LARGER STEAM MAINS

Those people who are concerned with superheated steam, higher pressure and /
or larger bore pipe, usually have their own methods of sizing.

However, for those not so fortunate Table 5 will prove to be helpful and reliable.

Example:

It is required to size a pipe to handle 20 tones of steam per hour at pressure of

14 bar gauge and a temperature of 3400C.

The length of the line is 300 meters and the permissible pressure drop over this
length is 0.675 bar.

Note that the chart is in absolute pressure and for an exercise of this kind, it is
reasonable to assume that 14 bar gauge equals 15 bar absolute.
First find the pressure drop ratio

Pressure drop
Ratio =
Inlet Pressure (ab.)

0.675
=
15

= 0.045

From this point on the left hand scale read horizontally to the right and at the
intersection with the curved line read vertically upwards to meet the length line of
300 meter’s. At this line point extend a horizontal line
h1 – h2 across the chart .

Now from the base temperature line at 340 0 C extend upwards to meet the 15
bar abs. pressure line.

Read horizontally to the right to meet the capacity line of 20 to nes/h and from
this point extend a line vertically upwards. The pipe size is indicated where this
line intersects the line h1- h2 ; the larger size should be used. The procedure can
, of course , be reversed to find the pressure drop in a known pipe size .
 TABLE 3 PRESSURE FACTORS FOR PIPE SIZING ( SI Units )

Pressure Volume Pressure Pressure Volume Pressure Pressure Volume Pressure

3 3 3
Bar abs M / kg Factor bar M / kg Factor bar M / kg Factor
gauge gauge
0.05 28.192 0.0301 0.95 0.901 3.694 2.95 0.466 14.41
0.10 14.674 0.0115 1.00 0.881 3.878 3.00 0.461 14.76
0.15 10.022 0.0253 1.05 0.860 4.067 3.10 0.451 15.48
0.20 7.649 0.0442 1.10 0.841 4.260 3.20 0.440 16.22
0.25 6.204 0.0681 1.15 0.823 4.458 3.30 0.431 16.98
0.30 5.229 0.0970 1.20 0.806 4.660 3.40 0.422 17.75
0.35 4.530 0.1308 1.25 0.788 4.866 3.50 0.413 18.54
0.40 3.993 0.1694 1.30 0.773 5.076 3.60 0.405 19.34
0.45 3.580 0.2128 1.35 0.757 5.291 3.70 0.396 20.16
0.50 3.240 0.2610 1.40 0.743 5.510 3.80 0.389 21.00
0.55 2.964 0.3140 1.45 0.728 5.734 3.90 0.381 21.85
0.60 2.732 0.3716 1.50 0.714 5.961 4.00 0.374 22.72
0.65 2.535 0.4340 1.55 0.701 6.193 4.10 0.367 23.61
0.70 2.365 0.5010 1.60 0.689 6.429 4.20 0.361 24.51
0.75 2.217 0.5727 1.65 0.677 6.670 4.30 0.355 25.43
0.80 2.087 0.6489 1.70 0.665 6.915 4.40 0.348 26.36
0.85 1.972 0.9278 1.75 0.654 7.164 4.50 0.342 27.32
0.90 1.869 0.8153 1.80 0.643 7.417 4.60 0.336 28.28
0.95 1.777 0.9053 1.85 0.632 7.675 4.70 0.330 29.27
1.013 1.673 1.025 1.90 0.622 7.937 4.80 0.325 30.27
Bar gauge 1.95 0.612 8.203 4.90 0.320 31.29
0 1.673 1.025 2.00 0.603 8.473 5.00 0.315 32.32
0.05 1.601 1.126 2.05 0.594 8.748 5.10 0.310 33.37
0.10 1.533 1.230 2.10 0.585 9.026 5.20 0.305 34.44
0.15 1.471 1.339 2.15 0.576 9.309 5.30 0.301 35.52
0.20 1.414 1.453 2.20 0.568 9.597 5.40 0.296 36.62
0.25 1.361 1.572 2.25 0.560 9.888 5.50 0.292 37.73
0.30 1.312 1.694 2.30 0.552 10.18 5.60 0.288 38.86
0.35 1.268 1.822 2.35 0.544 10.48 5.70 0.284 40.01
0.40 1.225 1.953 2.40 0.536 10.79 5.80 0.280 41.17
0.45 1.186 2.090 2.45 0.529 11.10 5.90 0.276 42.35
0.50 1.149 2.230 2.50 0.522 11.41 6.00 0.272 43.54
0.55 1.115 2.375 2.55 0.515 11.72 6.10 0.269 44.76
0.60 1.083 2.525 2.60 0.509 12.05 6.20 0.265 45.98
0.65 1.051 2.679 2.65 0.502 12.37 6.30 0.261 47.23
0.70 1.024 2.837 2.70 0.496 12.70 6.40 0.258 48.48
0.75 0.997 2.999 2.75 0.489 13.03 6.50 0.255 49.76
0.80 0.971 3.166 2.80 0.483 13.37 6.60 0.252 51.05
0.85 0.946 3.338 2.85 0.477 13.71 6.70 0.249 52.36
0.90 0.923 3.514 2.90 0.471 14.06 6.80 0.246 53.68
TABLE 3 PRESSURE FACTORS FOR PIPE SIZING ( SI Units Continued)

Pressure Volume Pressure Pressure Volume Pressure Pressure Volume Pressure

Bar M3 k/g Factor Bar M3 k/g Bar Bar M3 k/g Bar
Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
6.90 0.243 55.02 9.30 0.189 91.92 13.40 0.135 175.83
7.00 0.240 56.38 9.40 0187 93.66 13.60 0.133 180.58
7.10 0.237 57.75 9.50 0185 95.41 13.80 0.132 185.40
7.20 0.235 59.13 9.60 0.184 97.18 14.00 0.130 190.29
7.30 0.232 60.54 9.70 0.182 98.62 14.20 0.128 195.23
7.40 0.229 61.96 9.80 0.182 100.75 14.40 0.127 200.23
7.50 0.227 63.39 9.90 0.179 102.57 14.60 0.125 205.30
7.60 0.224 64.84 10.00 0.177 104.40 14.80 0.124 210.42
7.70 0.222 66.31 10.10 0.174 108.10 15.00 0.122 215.61
7.80 0.219 67.79 10.20 0.172 111.87 15.20 0.121 220.86
7.90 0.217 69.29 10.40 0.169 115.70 15.40 0.119 226.17
8.00 0.215 70.80 10.60 0.166 119.59 15.60 0.118 231.54
8.10 0.212 72.33 10.80 0.163 123.54 15.80 0.117 236.97
8.20 0.210 73.88 11.00 0.161 127.56 16.00 0.115 242.46
8.30 0.208 75.44 11.20 0.158 131.64 16.20 0.114 248.01
8.40 0.206 77.02 11.40 0.156 135.78 16.40 0.113 253.62
8.50 0.204 78.61 11.60 0.153 139.98 16.60 0.111 259.30
8.60 0.202 80.22 11.80 0.151 144.25 16.80 0.110 265.03
8.70 0.200 81.84 12.00 0.149 148.57 17.00 0.109 270.83
8.80 0.198 83.49 12.40 0.147 152.96 17.20 0.108 276.69
8.90 0.196 85.14 12.60 0.145 157.41 17.40 0.107 282.60
9.00 0.194 86.81 12.80 0.143 161.92 17.60 0.106 288.58
9.10 0.192 88.50 13.00 0.141 166.50 17.80 0.105 294.62
9.20 0.191 90.90 13.20 0.139 171.13 18.00 0.104 300.72
Thermal Insulation:
 Optimum thickness – heat loss reduced to 5- 10 % of heat loss
from bare surface

Or brought down to 50 -100 k cal / hr m 3

PCRA recommendation
Insulating material :- Fiberglass / mineral wool

Surface Pipe 25 50 80 100

Temp.0C NB

Recommended thicken (inch)

100 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0

200 2.0 3.5 3.5 3.5

300 3.0 4.5 4.5 5.0

Condensate load - heat loss after insulation leads to

Condensate formation in
Lines carrying saturated steam
Some typical values :

Basis – amb temp 21” C , Insulation – 80 % efficient

Steam Line Size 50 80 100

Pressure Temp
0
Bar (g) C

Kg / hr per 100 m

2 133 11 16 20

4 151 15 21 28

7 170 18 26 32

E Pipeline routing
Specific consideration needed for saturated steam line –due to possibility
of condensation.
Presence of condensate - Water hammer / slug flow
Resulting in stresses and vibration

F Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion of steel pipes has to be suitably accommodated to
minimize stresses in pipe lines.

THERMAL EXPANSION

- Linear thermal expansion of pipeline depends on materials and

temperature .

Temperature range minus 30 to 600 0 C

Linear expansion coefficient in mm per m per 0 C

CS / MS 0.0128 to 0.0175
ALLOY Steel 0.0138 to 0.0176
SS 0.0194 to 0.0227
- Steam line at ambient temp. when carrying steam, attains temp. of
Steam ; effect of this on linear expansion of pipelines.

Sat. steam 1 3 10 15
Pressure
Kg /sq.cm,g

Steam temp. 120 143 183 220

C

Expansion of 41 mm 51 mm 69 mm 77 mm
CS/ MS pipe
per 30 m
(amb.Temp.
30 0C )
(Coeff. 0.015)

- Expansion joint / fitting / bend is used to accommodate thermal expansion

.

W
Expansion loop of this type is commonly used , one
such
2W loop is Provided for calculated expansion of 125
to150 mm
using this criterion :

Pipe NB 50 100 200

W.M 1.5 to 1.7 2.2 to 2.5 3.0 to 3.3

Piping for Condensate

- Different consideration are required for pipe line upstream of trap pipe
line between condensing surface and trap.

Pipe line upstream of trap

• Recommended design velocity 0.3 to 0.4 m/s.

• This would mean friction head loss of about 1 m WC per 100 m travel.

• Typically 25 NB can handle 700 kg/hr and 15 NB can handle 160 kg/hr.

• In determining the line capacity, Starting Load has to be considered

• Usual consideration is – Starting Load is taken s twice the running load .

• Providing slight fall ( about 1 in 10 ) is recommended

Pipe line down stream of trap

• This line is sometimes referred to as Return Line.

• Flash steam is generated

• Extent of flash generation depends on upstream pressure.

3 kg / sq cm ,g flash steam 8 %
10kg / sq cm ,g flash steam 16 %
• Considering flash steam sp. Vol. (1.725 cum/Kg ) 1 cum condensate ,
under above conditions , would become about 175 cum and 350 cum.

• The line size is required to be suitable to handle this large increase in

volume as well as the existence of the two phase flow (water + flash
steam)

• Slug flow conditions may exist, which can result in severe vibrations and
stresses in pipe line.

• For line sizing, the velocity for flash steam is taken between 20 25 m/s.

• In absence of selection charts, vol. flow of flash steam generated and

design velocity (20 -25 m/s) can be used to arrive at size of Return Line.