INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS

Any product is made of many components which are made of a variety of materials. Early human beings
used natural materials (stone, rock, animal bones etc).With the ability to make metals & alloys, the
range of materials with desired characteristics increased significantly. Further, as science advanced,
ability to synthesis new materials increased the variety further.

Figure-1 Shows the large variety of materials used in an automobile. This clearly illustrates the importance of
materials in today’s world.

It is a difficult task to choose a material that is most suitable for a component.

Here, the scope of discussion is limited to general features of some commonly used materials. The aim is
only to create basic familiarity.
Materials can be basically classified into five categories

1. Metals & Alloys 2.Plastics 3.Ceramics 4.Wood 5.Composites.

1. Metals & Alloys:

They are further subdivided into Ferrous & Non-ferrous. Ferrous group mainly consists of iron & carbon. Based on
the % of carbon, it gives a variety of steels (low ,medium & High carbon steel).If materials like
magnesium, chromium ,vanadium are added another group called Alloy Steels are formed. Some
common examples of use are- automobile engines, tools, gear boxes, knives, furniture, stainless steel
utensils etc. Instead of iron, if metals like copper, magnesium ,aluminum are the main element, they
are classified as Non-ferrous Metals & Alloys. Some common examples of use are- Brass & bronze
utensils, aluminum window frames, etc.

2. Plastics:
These are polymers, non-metallic and light-weight. They are attractive in terms of weight,cost,resistence to
moisture ,toughness ,appearance etc. (in attractive colors).They are widely used for toys, house-hold
articles(buckets ,mugs ,containers etc),shopping bags, ropes ,ball pens etc. Some plastics like nylon,PVC
etc are known to all. There is an increasing tendency to use plastics where metal were used in the
past.

3. Ceramics:
These are oxides, nitrides, carbides etc. Some common examples are - glass sheets, Glass utensils, pottery, beads
etc.

4. Wood:
This is a natural material. It is fibrous and ,hence, its properties are direction-sensititve.Generally ,each year a
new layer of tissue is formed on the outside. Each ring has a porous & hard layer .It is a practice
to count the no of layers after a tree is cut to know its age. Wood is seasoned before it is used to
enhance its strength. Well-known uses are- furniture, door and window frames, toys etc.

5. Composites:
These are relatively new. They have two or more different materials ,which have distinct characteristics
.They are mixed together, maintaining their individual nature so that the resultant characteristic of the
 material is different ,and usually better than those of the individuals. They may have metals, ceramics
,plastics etc within the structure. They are used in aircrafts, automobiles, water tanks, cutting tools, etc.

Material Properties:
Selection of a material for any component will depend on the properties that are required for the
component to function satisfactorily. Usually, more than one property may be required. If two
materials can be satisfactory , the cheaper or the one easier to make the component may be chosen.
Some properties generally required are

A. Mechanical Properties

1. Strength : Strength is the ability to withstand the load .Depending on the nature of load,
it is specified as tensile,compressive, shear, bending , impact etc. For example, the head of a
hammer must have adequate compressive & impact strength whereas the rope used to lift
heavy weights must have satisfactory tensile strength.

2. Stiffness/ Rigidity: This is the ability to resist deflection. Some materials which are brittle do
not deflect (e.g. glass / cast iron. ) . Most of the materials deflect if loaded ,and this will have
to be within permissible limits for functioning. Vibration is a form of dynamic deflection. A
small amount of vibration ,while travelling in a car , may be acceptable, but if it is too
much, it will be unpleasant.

3. Hardness​: is the ability of a material to wear out , if rubbed against another surface. For
example, for a knife to be sharp & cut a material(cloth, vegetable etc),
It has to be hard & sustain the hardness for long. The rail way track has to be hard & wear-resistant
so that they do not get damaged when trains run on them.
 4. Fatigue: When a material is loaded continuously in a cyclic fashion ,the material may fail
due to fatigue .It may happen soon, or it may take a long time. If a material fails by
fatigue, the component will break. Fatigue strength is necessary for reliable long term
functioning.

5. Impact Strength​: The ability to withstand a suddenly applied large force is measured by this.
For example, the ability of an automobile to absorb the impact of a crash into a solid wall at
high speed will decide whether the passengers will be safe after that.

6. Creep: Creep is a slow gradual permanent deformation, which can cause problems in the
long run. This is more critical if a device has to work at high temp for long duration (
weeks or even months – like furnaces ). Quality of performance may go on decreasing with
time.

PLEASE NOTE that this is not an exclusive list of all mech. properties.

B. Physical and chemical properties​: These also influence the performance of a component, and hence, a product.

1. ​Density: decides the mass ,and weight of a component. When weight reduction is Important, low
density will be very helpful. Lead is a very heavy metal,aluminium is much lighter than steel,
Plastics are still lighter.

2. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity​: The ability to transmit heat or electrical power are
decided by these. A cooking pot for use on gas should be a good conductor to cook fast.
However, the one to store should be a poor conductor , if one wants to keep the food hot for
some time. A good electrically conductive material will minimize the energy loss during
transmission of power. To prevent shock, the holding part of an electrically operated device
should be a poor conductor.
3. Corrosion resistance​: many materials deteriorate under the influence of environment. Corrosion
damages the material slowly ,and may cause failure or even accident

Material Section:

Many times ,during the prototype development ( when the first product is being made ), many trials
may be carried out before finalizing the materials. Materials have been standardized and the
DATA is available for reference.

Reference Reading Material

Students are advised to go through books to get more information. One book, which gives details in a
simple way, is

Elements of Workshop Technology - by S.K.Hajra Choudhury, A.K.Hajra Choudhury & Nirjhar Roy ,
published by Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt Ltd, Mumbai.

(Chapters 1 to 5, 10, & 13)